Introduction

• “Republic” by Plato: A philosophical work and treatise on social and political reform (cited from Nettleship 1967).

• Plato’s view of the human race: Incredibly low and high simultaneously, with references to Sinclair 1951 and Popper 1945: Vol. I.

• Notable works by Plato: “Republic” (380-370 BC), “Statesman” (360 BC), and “Laws” (350 BC). Contributions include founding philosophical idealism and addressing human life and society organization (cited from Nettleship 1967).

• Plato’s perspective on political philosophy: Architectonic science of society, distinguishing politics from other life dimensions.

• Plato’s influence: Characterized as the intellectual side of Christianity and admired for concern for human perfection.

• Plato’s contributions: Laid foundations of Greek political theory, with Aristotle extending and critiquing his ideas.

• Plato’s critics: Mainly in the 20th century within the liberal tradition, criticizing his views on democracy and seeing him as a forerunner of totalitarianism (cited from Thorson 1963).

Life Sketch

• Plato’s Early Life:

  • Born in May-June 428/27 BC in Athens to an aristocratic family.
  • Father: Ariston, traced ancestry to early kings of Athens.
  • Mother: Perictione, descended from Solon, the famous Athenian lawgiver.
  • Family connections to the 30 tyrants who ruled Athens after the Peloponnesian War.
  • Siblings: One sister (Potone), two brothers (Adeimantus and Glaucon), one half-brother (Antiphon).
  • Plato’s real name: Aristocles, nickname “Plato” due to his broad shoulders.

• Plato’s Education and Early Life:

  • Excelled in music, mathematics, poetry, and rhetoric.
  • Fought in three wars and won an award for bravery.
  • Met Socrates at the age of 20 and became deeply influenced by him.
  • Influence of Socrates led him to abandon the idea of becoming a poet.

• Plato’s Life and Political Involvement:

  • Turning point: Trial and execution of Socrates in 399 BC.
  • Active in politics, including involvement in the oligarchic revolution in 404 BC.
  • Withdrew from politics following the restoration of democracy and Socrates’ execution.
  • Left Athens and went to Megara and then Egypt to study mathematics and history.
  • Returned to Athens in 395 BC and fought for the city of Corinth.
  • Visited the Pythagorean philosopher Archytas in Italy in 387 BC.
  • Established his famous Academy in Athens in 386 BC, which became a renowned center of learning.

• Plato’s Academy:

  • Named after local hero Academus or Hecademus.
  • Included subjects like mathematics, astronomy, music, law, and philosophy.
  • Emphasized the importance of mathematics, with the inscription “let no one without geometry enter here.”
  • Plato’s Academy served as a training ground for future philosophic rulers.

• Plato’s Later Life:

  • The Academy became the prototype for subsequent universities and higher learning institutions.
  • A turning point in European science and education.
  • Plato devoted much of his time to organizing and managing the Academy.
  • Made two visits to Sicily but faced challenges with Dionysius II.
  • Died in 347 BC while attending a wedding feast of one of his students, surrounded by the respect and mourning of Athens.

Plato’s Corpus

• Plato’s Works:

  • Includes the Apology of Socrates, 23 genuine dialogues, 11 disputed dialogues, and 13 letters.
  • Divided into four periods:
    • (a) Early period: Writings include Apology, Crito, Euthyphro, Laches, Lysis, Charmides, Protagoras, and the first book of the Republic.
    • (b) Transitional period: Features dialogues like Meno, Gorgias, Euthydemus, Cratylus, Lesser Hippias, Greater Hippias, Ion, and Menexenus.
    • (c) Period of maturity: Includes Phaedo, Symposium, Phaedrus, and books two to 10 of the Republic.
    • (d) Later period: Includes the Statesman and the Laws, dialogues devoid of Socrates’ influence.

• Selected Works and Themes:

  • Apology: Imaginative and satirical version of Socrates’ defense trial. Emphasizes Socrates’ divine mission to philosophize.
  • Crito: Explores questions of political obligation and disobedience.
  • Euthyphro: Discusses service to divine holiness as a noble activity.
  • Phaedo: Presents a rational case for the immortality of the soul.
  • Charmides: Explores the idea of self-knowledge and temperance (self-control).
  • Laches: Examines the meaning and definition of courage.
  • Protagoras: Contrasts the views of Protagoras with those of Socrates.
  • Lesser Hippias and Greater Hippias: Discusses the concept of the good and its relation to values.
  • Meno: Explores the teaching of virtue.
  • Menexenus: Critiques the Periclean “Golden Age.”
  • Gorgias: Advocates adhering to one’s conscience and dismisses the idea of art as expediency.
  • Symposium: Explores the concept of Love (Eros) and the nature of Forms.
  • Timaeus: Examines the origin of life in the imaginary continent of Atlantis and the role of God in providing order.
  • Philebus: Focuses on ethics and the good life.

• Political Philosophy Works:

  • The Republic: Addresses themes of justice and the benefits of being just, amalgamating ideas in ethics, metaphysics, philosophy, and politics.
  • The Statesman (Politicus): Defends the rule of law over personal dictatorship, suggesting that limited monarchy is preferable where sovereign law exists.
  • The Laws: The longest of Plato’s dialogues, advocates for a mixed constitution moderating between despotism and freedom. Similar in some aspects to Aristotle’s ideas.

• Tone of Plato’s Political Works:

  • Authoritarian and hierarchical tone in both the Republic and the Laws.
  • Aristotle’s “ideal state is always Plato’s second best.”

Context of the Republic

• Form of Dialogue:

  • “The Republic” was written in the form of a dialogue, a method important for clarifying questions and establishing truth.
  • This dialogue method was originally developed by Socrates, who used dialectics in the service of ethics.
  • Dialectical reasoning was employed to explore human beings and society rather than nature.

• Discussion Participants:

  • The discussions in “The Republic” involved various characters, including Cephalus, Polemarchus, Thrasymachus, Glaucon, Adeimantus, and Socrates.
  • Socrates served as the primary spokesman throughout the dialogue.

• Meaning of “The Republic”:

  • “The Republic” in Greek means “justice” and should not be interpreted in its Latin sense as “the state” or “the polity.”
  • The dialogue began with an exploration of the Idea of Good and the development of a perfect soul.

• Core Themes of “The Republic”:

  • Philosophy, as understood by Socrates and Plato, was the pursuit of wisdom and human excellence.
  • Human excellence was viewed as the excellence of a social creature and a citizen.
  • The goal was to achieve human perfection, well-being, and happiness through philosophy and statesmanship.
  • The life of a philosopher and the life of an active statesman were seen as intertwined, with both contributing to the well-being of society.

• Scope and Content:

  • “The Republic” delved into the notion of justice and how it could be realized both within the individual and the state.
  • It provided a detailed description of the ideal polity and social institutions.
  • The dialogue included an extensive scheme of education, which Rousseau praised as one of the finest treatises on education ever written.
  • It explored the concept of the good life and outlined the means to achieve it.

• Interdisciplinary Nature:

  • “The Republic” defies easy classification and encompasses various aspects of Plato’s philosophy.
  • It touches on ethics, politics, economics, psychology, art, education, and philosophy.
  • The dialogue is not strictly a treatise but deals with the entirety of human life.

• Holistic Approach:

  • “The Republic” aims to address the nature of justice, the ideal state, and individual well-being in a comprehensive and interconnected manner.
  • Plato’s vision involves the unification of philosophy and statesmanship to achieve a harmonious and just society.

Anti-Democrat

• Political Belief Structures of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle:

  • Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle shared a common perspective in their political beliefs.
  • They were essentially aristocratic conservatives who defended the values, ways of life, and attitudes of the declining aristocracy.
  • Despite recognizing the aristocracy’s degeneration, they aimed to revitalize and reform it to serve as the foundation of civic life.
  • They viewed this as a means to counter the democratic revolution led by traders, artisans, and merchants and to address the growing materialism and individualism in Athenian society.

• Plato’s Critique of Athenian Democracy:

  • Plato’s work, “The Republic,” criticized the Athenian way of life and its participatory democratic institutions.
  • He dismissed the Athenian practice of political participation for every adult male as “amateurism.”
  • Plato believed that democracy led to political instability due to the incompetence and ignorance of politicians, resulting in factionalism and violence.
  • He argued that democracy did not tolerate highly gifted individuals, as exemplified by the execution of Socrates.

• Socrates’ Trial and Death:

  • Socrates’ death was portrayed as a Hegelian tragedy in which both sides (Socrates and the Athenian mob) were seen as having some validity in their positions.
  • Plato neglected some facts, such as Socrates’ close association with the tyrants Critias and Alcibiades and his refusal to go into exile, in order to build his case for rule by a small group of privileged and wise individuals.

• Plato’s Views on Athenian Democracy:

  • Plato’s aversion to Athenian democracy was both intellectual and personal.
  • He was introduced to democratic ideas but remained an aristocrat by birth and conviction.
  • Plato mistakenly blamed Athenian democracy for Athens’ defeat in the Peloponnesian War, although the defeat was due to military strategy errors.
  • Athenian democracy, though limited, allowed direct citizen participation in legislation and administration.
  • It was considered an example of vibrant participatory democracy, influencing later thinkers like Rousseau.

• Athens vs. Sparta and Ideological Rivalry:

  • Plato depicted the rivalry between Athens and Sparta as representing opposing ideologies, political systems, and lifestyles.
  • Athens was characterized as individualistic, creative, democratic, and open.
  • Sparta was seen as statist, regimented, oligarchic, and militaristic.
  • Plato tried to blend the communitarian spirit of Sparta with the individualistic Athenian society but proposed a holistic, elitist, regimented, and authoritarian model in “The Republic.”

• Plato’s Philosophical Approach:

  • Plato was known for advocating views that aimed to promote what he considered virtuous.
  • He was criticized for not always being intellectually honest and for twisting discussions to lead to his desired virtuous outcomes.
  • Plato’s dialogues often reflected his attempt to make people accept his virtuous ideals and judgments about doctrines based on their social consequences.

Critic of Sophism

• Plato’s View of the Sophists:

  • Plato had a critical view of the Sophists in general, although he held Protogoras and Gorgias in high regard.
  • The Sophists represented a rival school of thought within the Socratic tradition.
  • Philosophically, Sophism stood for relativism, skepticism, individualism, and humanism.
  • Sophism was considered the founding school of democracy and social change.
  • The proposition of Protogoras, “man is the measure of all things,” emphasized the relativity of truth and opposed aristocratic and conservative values.
  • In this sense, the Sophists were seen as proponents of democratic ideas.

• Plato’s Criticisms of the Sophists:

  • Plato characterized the Sophists as “teachers of spiritual wares” who were primarily interested in financial gain.
  • He criticized them for their alleged disregard for absolute truth and for charging fees for imparting knowledge.
  • However, this accusation of seeking payment for knowledge was considered unjustified, as the Sophists did not possess personal wealth and didn’t receive substantial donations from students.
  • Modern scholars and professors, who do receive salaries, have often been more sympathetic to Plato than to the Sophists.
  • Plato condemned the Sophists for their oratorical and intellectual acrobatics, teaching students to win arguments through rhetoric rather than the power of reason.
  • The word “sophistry” originated from the Sophists’ emphasis on persuasive speech.
  • Even Aristotle criticized the Sophists for their lack of firsthand political experience, considering them inadequate and incompetent teachers of politics.

• Sophists’ Contributions:

  • Despite Plato’s criticisms, the Sophists made significant contributions.
  • They laid the foundations of systematic education for young individuals.
  • They analyzed ethical questions using reason, which had an influence on Socrates and Plato, even though Plato criticized them.
  • Their focus on rhetoric and persuasion skills contributed to the development of persuasive speech techniques.

Philosophical Influences

Pythagoras (582-500 BC)

• Influenced Plato with ideas such as the importance of mathematics, belief in other-worldliness, and the immortality of the human soul.
• Pythagoras believed in renunciation of earthly goods, purification from sensuality, and the transmigration of souls.
• Like Jains and Buddhists, he practiced non-violence and was strictly vegetarian.

Heraclitus (544-484 BC)

• Heraclitus taught the concept of eternal change and unity, emphasizing perpetual flux.
• He believed in the inviolability of the laws of the world order.

Parmenides (540-470 BC)

• Parmenides rejected sense objects as illusions and considered the “One” as the only real, infinite, and indivisible entity.
• He distrusted the senses and relied on reason to comprehend the unchangeable being.

Socrates

• Plato was deeply influenced by Socrates, who emphasized a teleological explanation of the world and ethical considerations in political matters.
• Socrates believed in absolute standards and the need to differentiate right from wrong.

Plato’s Philosophy

• Plato believed that wrong deeds stemmed from ignorance, while knowledge led to right actions and happiness.
• Knowledge, for Plato, represented a vision and transcendence from the world of appearance to the world of Reality.
• He emphasized a societal dimension to individual excellence, combining knowledge with service to the community.

Philosophy in Ancient Greece

• Ancient Greek philosophers, including Pythagoras, Heraclitus, Parmenides, and Socrates, covered a wide range of knowledge.
• Philosophy encompassed natural and social sciences and was seen as a way of life.
• Plato and Aristotle inherited from Socrates the belief in absolute standards and the importance of examining and criticizing value judgments.

The Republic

• Plato’s fundamental idea for the Republic was based on Socrates’ dictum that “virtue is knowledge.”
• Plato believed in the inculcation of true knowledge as the foundation for a philosophical statecraft, which led to the founding of the Academy.

Knowledge and Opinion

Plato’s Distinction Between Worlds:

• Plato differentiated between two worlds: the intelligible world and the world of the senses.
• The intelligible world was the realm of being, beauty, and forms, while the sensory world was the world of becoming, the beautiful, and opinions.
• The sensory world was considered a mere copy and was constantly changing and impermanent.
• The real world, according to Plato, was the world of “Ideas” or forms, which was perfect, eternal, immutable, and independent of all things.
• Matter, the other principle in the universe, was a raw material that received the influence of the world of Ideas, leading to changes in the sensory world.

Creation of the Sensory World:

• Plato mentioned in Timaeus that the sensory world was created by a divine craftsman known as the Demiurge, but he didn’t explain how the intelligible world, matter, and the sensory world came together.

Acquisition of Knowledge:

• Plato described how the human mind acquires knowledge using three concepts: (a) The Allegory of the Cave:People live in the darkness of the Cave (the realm of beliefs) and can attain enlightenment (knowledge) at the cave’s mouth (symbolizing daylight). (b) The Metaphor of the Divided Line: This metaphor illustrates different levels of understanding and knowledge. (c) The Doctrine of Forms: Plato believed there was a Form or Idea for everything that exists in the real world, emphasizing the problem of universals.

Educational and Philosophical Significance:

• The allegory of the Cave was intended to convey the essence of education and the meaning of Being according to Plato.
• Plato’s ideas had similarities with Hindu beliefs, where a guru helps individuals attain enlightenment from darkness.
• Plato’s exploration of Forms or Ideas contributed to the development of the problem of universals in philosophy.

Philosopher Ruler

Plato’s Theory of Philosopher Rulers:

• Plato’s Ideal State hinged on the concept of philosopher rulers.
• Philosophers were believed to possess the knowledge and wisdom needed for effective governance.
• The pursuit of philosophy was seen as the path to spiritual enlightenment and immortality of the soul.

Qualifications for Governance:

• Rulers, including philosopher rulers, required specific skills and qualifications.
• Their primary goal was the well-being of all citizens, not just preserving lives.

Philosopher Kings for True Happiness:

• Plato emphasized that genuine happiness could be achieved when supreme power aligned with wisdom and temperance.
• He advocated for philosophers to become rulers or for rulers to embrace philosophy.

Governance’s Unique Importance:

• Plato placed great importance on governance and believed that philosophers in power could best serve society.
• Philosopher rulers were less driven by personal gain or power.

Ideal State as a Benchmark:

• Plato’s Ideal State served as a benchmark to assess existing political systems.
• He argued that imperfections in states stemmed from the absence of philosopher rulers.
• Plato’s ideas represented the intersection of political philosophy and real-world politics.

Why Should Philosophers Rule?

Plato’s Ideal Philosopher Ruler:

• Plato believed that philosopher rulers, with their grasp of the idea of good, were best suited to govern.
• He viewed knowledge as attainable by only a select few who had the necessary leisure and material comforts.
• Plato, like other Greeks, emphasized that leisure was vital for the pursuit of wisdom.

Qualities of the Philosopher Ruler:

• A philosopher ruler would administer justice and act for the community’s good.
• They would possess qualities such as good character, a calm disposition, sound judgment, truthfulness, high-mindedness, discipline, and courage.
• They would be unafraid of death and dedicated to truth, honesty, and public service.

Motivation for Rulership:

• Good rulers would not govern for personal gain or honor.
• Plato believed that the fear of being governed by someone worse than themselves compelled good individuals to accept power.
• True rulers would prioritize their subjects’ interests over their own.

Adeimantus’ Perspective:

• Adeimantus disagreed with Socrates, arguing that philosophers were often useless or villains in society.
• Socrates agreed but blamed society for undervaluing knowledge and wisdom, emphasizing success and wealth instead.

Role of Philosophers in a Diseased Polity:

• Plato asserted that in a diseased polity, ambition, acquisitiveness, and appetite overruled wisdom, reason, and temperance.
• Just as a sick person needed a doctor’s help, a diseased society required wise and noble rulers.

Plato’s Political Philosophy:

• Plato’s philosophy combined social nihilism with political affirmation.
• He aimed to cleanse the political state of erosive influences and believed in the potential of the political community to bring out individual excellence.

Politics and Philosophy Compatibility:

• Plato argued for the compatibility of politics and philosophy.
• Philosopher rulers would make wise legislators and frame laws in alignment with the Idea of Good.
• Politics was ultimately about shaping the soul and connecting the political with the ethical.

The Idea of Good:

• The Idea of Good represented the highest knowledge and could be compared to the Sun, illuminating all intelligible things.
• Plato envisioned an Ideal State based on timeless principles, which could transform a diseased polity into a healthy and beautiful one.
• He believed that political phenomena could be comprehended and molded according to the philosopher’s vision of the Good.

Political Philosophy as an Architectonic Endeavor:

• Political philosophy aimed to establish order and the proper relationship among individuals.
• It sought to transfigure political phenomena in light of the vision of the Good.
• Plato saw political philosophy as a transformative science that projected a more perfect order into the future.

Moral Urgency of Political Vision:

• Plato emphasized the moral urgency and centrality of political vision.
• He insisted on the importance of imaginative systems in political theory.

Philosophic Absolutism

Socrates on Philosophic Rule:

• Socrates advocated for philosophic rule, placing reason above laws.
• He believed philosophic rule would reject tyranny and force, as they contradicted reason.
• Good rulers, like good doctors, could adapt to the situation rather than being bound by laws.

Limits to Philosophic Rule:

• Limits included maintaining the state’s size, wealth distribution, education system, and laws aligned with the philosophic ideal.
• Plato emphasized the need for stability but also the desire for scientific inquiry, creating a contradiction.

Plato’s Rationale for Absolute Power:

• Absolute power was conferred on the philosopher ruler to avoid tyranny and benefit the community.
• Strict control over various aspects of life aimed to cultivate selflessness, temperance, and endurance.
• Plato believed that philosophic rule would promote happiness, meaning harmony, efficiency, and moral goodness.

Selfless Ruling Group:

• Plato’s solution to the problem of absolute power was a selfless ruling group dedicated to philosophy, not politics.
• Absolute power in existing societies corrupted rulers and degraded citizens.
• In Plato’s community, absolute power would be guided by timeless truth, benefiting both rulers and subjects.

Political Power as Etherealized Principle:

• The Platonic subject would be controlled by impersonal agents of timeless truth.
• Political power would be guided by principles and truth, serving the true interests of both rulers and the ruled.

Criticism of the Philosopher Ruler

Plato’s Opposition to Average Person’s Participation:

• Plato denied political participation to the average person, defining citizenship based on shared benefits rather than participation.
• He believed that allowing participation would lead to government by opinion, which he sought to prevent to ensure the common good.
• Plato’s stance was seen as patronizing, authoritarian, and unhealthy for a diverse state.

Rejection of Majoritarianism and Popular Participation:

• Plato rejected majoritarianism and popular participation, arguing that the ordinary person couldn’t comprehend absolute truth and the Idea of Good.
• Questions were raised about whether anyone truly comprehended absolute truth, as it often depended on perspective and varied over time.

Strength in Diversity and Participation:

• Plato’s vision, while ennobling, overlooked the importance of diversity and participation in a state.
• A state that ignored diverse views and denied participation would be unjust, unstable, and inherently weak.
• Political strength came from the participation of citizens, accommodating diverse interests and opinions through consensus.

Aristotle’s Critique of Plato:

• Aristotle criticized Plato’s idea for confusing unity with harmony.
• He believed that the essence of a state lay in its diversity, making it distinct from other organizations.
• A ruler should be worldly wise and receptive to others’ views rather than relying solely on personal vision.

Need for Checks on Power:

• Plato’s belief in the absolute safety of philosopher rulers wielding power was misplaced.
• Concentration of power, even in the hands of the best, could lead to corruption.
• Institutional and impersonal checks on unbridled power were crucial for the community’s well-being.

Plato’s Shift in the Laws:

• In the “Laws,” Plato aimed for total unity but through an elaborate system of legal regulations and the rule of law.
• A Nocturnal Council of the wisest would make detailed laws regulating various aspects of life.
• While more receptive to collective wisdom and sovereign law, Plato’s underlying idea remained that statecraft was soulcraft achievable in a united community.

Feasibility of the Ideal State

Doubts about Plato’s Ideal State:

• Recent scholarship has cast doubts on Plato’s seriousness in implementing the Ideal State.
• Strauss viewed “The Republic” as a satire demonstrating the limits of political feasibility and idealism.
• Bloom agreed, calling it the greatest critique of political idealism ever written.
• They argued that Plato failed to establish a relationship between justice, psychic harmony, and happiness for the philosopher ruler.
• They challenged the traditional viewpoint that the philosopher ruler ruled out of a sense of duty to do good to others.

Plato’s Fundamental Assumptions:

• Sabine outlined two fundamental assumptions in Plato’s political philosophy.
• First, government should rely on exact knowledge, making political leadership both an art and a science.
• Second, society existed for mutual satisfaction of needs through individuals with complementary capacities.
• Plato believed that entrusting ruling to trained experts would lead to competent governance, eliminating factionalism and petty politics.
• Political philosophy aimed to prevent incompetence and knavery in public life and supply the state with critical intelligence.
• Plato believed that individuals had a social side and that philosophers ruled to prevent victimization by inferior rulers.

Thinkers

• The scholars, such as Strauss (1964), Randall (1970), and Bloom (1968), provided critical perspectives on Plato’s “The Republic” in the 20th century.
• Barker (1964), Cassirer (1946), Cornford (1945), Nettleship (1967), Sabine (1973), and Sinclair (1951) are cited as representatives of traditional viewpoints on Plato’s political philosophy.

Justice

Notes on Plato’s Ideal State and Justice:

• Plato’s ideal state possessed four cardinal virtues: wisdom, courage, temperance (self-control), and justice.
• Wisdom was upheld by rulers who were knowledgeable, courage by brave warriors, self-control by societal harmony and agreement on who should rule, and justice by individuals performing their naturally fitted roles without interfering with others.
• Justice was the central principle on which the state had to be founded, contributing to the excellence of the city.
• In “The Republic,” Plato explored the meaning of justice as right conduct or morality, distinct from legality.
• He critically examined contemporary views on justice, defined the concept, and then applied it to individuals and the state, drawing analogies between justice in both.

Different Definitions of Justice

Socrates’ Discussion on Justice:

• Socrates begins the discussion with Cephalus, who defines justice as telling the truth, being honest, and paying one’s debts.
• Socrates challenges this view by showing that honesty in word and deed can sometimes be harmful.
• Cephalus’ son, Polemarchus, redefines justice as “giving each man his due” or “doing the right thing,” which he further qualifies as doing good to friends and harm to enemies.
• Socrates presents three arguments to refute Polemarchus: helping friends may involve ignoble acts, it’s difficult to determine who one’s friends and enemies are, and a just person should not harm anyone, as it leads to more injustice.
• Thrasymachus, a Sophist, defines justice as the interests of the stronger party, the rulers.
• Socrates argues against Thrasymachus, showing that rulers can make mistakes and that justice should benefit the ruled, not the rulers.
• Glaucon and Adeimantus challenge Socrates, arguing that individuals are just out of necessity, not willingly.
• They claim that conventional rules of justice are imposed by social sanction, and individuals are taught that injustice brings rewards and good reputation.
• Socrates suggests examining justice at both the state and individual levels to understand its true meaning.

Justice in the State and Individual

Plato’s Views on the Origin of States and Cities:

• Plato explains that states and cities arise from two primary reasons: mutual need and differences in individual aptitudes.
• Mutual need leads to reciprocal services and the dependence of individuals on others for subsistence.
• This dependence necessitates the division of labor and functional specialization based on individuals’ differing abilities.
• Specialization is encouraged not to establish superiority but to recognize and develop the uniqueness in each individual.
• Plato emphasizes that each individual has a specific function with clear obligations and privileges, requiring training and skills.
• Society is envisioned as a harmonized, orderly whole, with individuals contributing their talents to sustain it.
• Plato introduces the concept of differentiated roles in society, including ruling, defense, and production, each with defined rights, duties, and expectations.
• This demarcation of roles contributes to the functioning interdependence of society.
• Plato’s approach to political philosophy involves viewing political society as a system with distinct roles, preventing confusion and blurred identities among classes.

Theory of Three Classes and Three Souls

• Plato’s theory of three classes and three souls is derived from Pythagorean ideas.
• Plato believed that every human soul possessed three qualities: rational, spirit, and appetite, with justice as a balancing and harmonizing virtue.
• The predominant quality in an individual’s soul determined their class and virtue.
• Individuals with a predominant rational faculty constituted the ruling class, characterized by wisdom.
• Those with spirit as the predominant quality formed the auxiliary or warrior class, defined by courage and public-spiritedness.
• Appetitive souls belonged to the artisan or producing class, guided by temperance but seen as necessary for all individuals.
• Plato emphasized the need for reason to control and direct emotions and passions in both the individual and the state.
• Justice in the individual meant achieving psychic harmony by balancing the three soul elements according to the dominant one.
• Justice also meant restraint, proper development, and societal harmony, acting as a bond between the individual and society.
• A just individual limited desires, differentiated between pleasures of reason and sensuality, and found genuine pleasures in intellectual pursuits.
• Justice in the state involved clear class distinctions, with each class performing its designated functions without interfering in others’.
• Plato’s conception of justice was distributive, providing individuals with proper training and skills in return for fulfilling their responsibilities.
• Interchange of jobs between classes was seen as harmful, while proper task performance made a state just.

Myth of Metals and Earth-Born

• Plato used the “noble or royal lie” to justify and explain class distinctions in the Ideal State.
• The Myth of Metals, also known as the Myth of the Earth-born, claimed that humans were born of the earth, and their bodies contained different metals:
  • Philosophic-rational individuals were made of gold.
  • Spirited-courageous individuals were made of silver.
  • Appetitive individuals were made of bronze.
• The myth served the purpose of convincing individuals of their rightful place in society and the obligations associated with their roles.
• The philosopher ruler, entrusted with assigning roles, was responsible for propagating the myth in the community’s best interest.
• Nietzsche criticized Plato for using a necessary lie to establish a just and ordered society, arguing that such myths were incompatible with true philosophy.
• Plato’s myth led to rigid class divisions, where rulers were considered superior to the ruled, based on race, education, and values.
• Plato rejected the conception of justice as equality before the law, favoring natural privileges and anti-individualism.
• He believed that individuals’ functional roles in society were determined by their own natural aptitudes, not by parental lineage.
• Parents were required to give up their children to the state, which would categorize and educate them according to their talents.
• Social mobility between classes was allowed, a radical idea in ancient societies.
• Critics argued that Plato’s system subordinated individual interests to the needs of the social whole, limiting individual freedom and privacy.
• Plato’s society was elitist and meritocratic, assuming that the right person could be found for every job, and economic planning could meet societal requirements.

Education

• The Ideal State governed by philosopher-rulers was built upon an elaborate and rigorous educational system.
• Plato believed that proper education was the key to realizing the new social order he envisioned.
• He considered education an instrument of moral reform, molding and transforming human souls to inculcate selfless duty and positive values.
• Education helped individuals fulfill their functions in society and achieve fulfillment.
• Plato dedicated significant portions of Books II, III, and X of “The Republic” to the topic of education.
• He regarded education as the primary means of addressing societal problems.
• Rousseau considered “The Republic” the finest treatise on education ever written.
• Plato’s belief that “virtue is knowledge” influenced his emphasis on education.
• He saw education as a lifelong process and believed the human soul could learn as long as it lived.
• Knowledge was pursued for the sake of perfection and excellence.
• Plato crafted the right environment to attract individuals to beauty and excellence.
• His educational system involved molding individual souls and shaping the environment for soul development.
• Education aimed to bring order to the soul, a necessary condition for virtue.
• Plato integrated the Pythagorean idea of the immortality and transmigration of souls into his education system.
• He believed in the capacity of individuals to remember knowledge acquired in previous births.
• Plato highlighted the interdependence of nature and nurture in shaping human character, emphasizing that both were essential.
• He believed that nature provided a basic foundation, but nurture through education was crucial for human development.
• Plato had confidence in the malleability of young minds and the receptive potential of the human mind.
• He stressed the importance of early education in the overall development of the individual.
• Elementary education aimed to control and harness non-rational aspects of the soul, while higher education focused on developing the rational soul.

Elementary Education

Elementary Education (Up to Age 18):

• Aimed to ensure universal literacy and proper training.
• Included both boys and girls, emphasizing gender equality in education.
• Focused on developing a harmonious and balanced individual.
• Comprised music and gymnastics to blend gentle and fierce qualities.
• Gymnastics trained the body for the benefit of the mind.
• Music aimed to soften the spirit, develop nascent reason, and instill right opinions.
• Music and artistic elements carried moral suggestions.
• Promoted values of simplicity, justice, conformity, and an austere life.
• Encouraged each individual to focus on their assigned work.

Censorship in Education:

• Censorship of literature, music, and art aimed to encourage virtues necessary in the guardian class.
• Plato recommended banning Lydian and Ionian harmonies while permitting Dorian and Phrygian ones.
• Forbidden works included those by Homer and Hesiod, which depicted gods behaving badly and discouraged temperance.
• Plato emphasized that children should not fear or hate death.
• Children were exposed to actual war and stories about gods and great persons.
• Restricted the playing of simple musical instruments and controlled diet.
• The goal was to develop poise, control of emotions, and harmonized social beings.
• Beautiful and harmonious environments left a positive impression on the soul.

Compulsory Military Training (Ages 18 to 20):

• Two years of mandatory military training for the guardians.
• Designed to strengthen the spirit without making it rigid.
• Followed the Athenian practice of compulsory military service.
• Aimed to create professional warriors committed to the defense of the state.
• Focused on discipline, courage, and physical readiness.
• Prohibited luxury and self-indulgence.

Higher Education (Ages 20 to 35):

• Reserved for selected individuals who would become members of the ruling class.
• Emphasized the pursuit of truth and illumination of the soul.
• Trained individuals to respond to the glow of pure light through discipline and hard work.
• Promoted a lifelong quest for knowledge and wisdom.

Gender Equality:

• Boys and girls received the same education, reflecting Plato’s belief in the equality of talents and skills between the sexes.
• Critiqued the secondary status of women in ancient Greece through his educational approach.

Higher Education

Plato on Higher Education:

• • At the age of 20, a selection was made for advanced education in mathematics, including arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and harmonics.
  • Arithmetic had both philosophical and practical value, and it was necessary for the best minds.
  • Geometry aided in military tactics and provided insight into the Idea of Good.
  • Astronomy and harmonics aimed to elevate the mind beyond sense perception.
  • Higher education aimed to cultivate free intellectual inquiry.

Educational Selection and Progression:

• • Those who excelled in advanced mathematics would enter an exclusive category of esoteric minds.
  • The first course of higher education lasted for 10 years.
  • At age 30, another selection was made for dialectics, metaphysics, logic, and philosophy for the next five years.
  • Graduates would accept junior positions in military and political life until age 35.
  • By age 50, philosopher rulers were fully equipped for contemplation, philosophy, and political responsibilities.
  • Plato emphasized that rulers needed true knowledge to ensure the good of the community.

Purpose of Education According to Plato and Aristotle:

• • Both Plato and Aristotle aimed to inculcate civic virtues and values in education.
  • They prioritized a moral liberal education over political science, seeking a mindset that responded justly and responsibly to public issues.
  • Education was seen as a remedy for corruption and instability in the state, teaching citizens their rights and obligations.
  • A state-controlled educational system served to underpin and sustain the idea of political order while providing opportunities for intellectual growth.

Interplay of Political Order and Education:

• • Plato argued that political order and the life of contemplation were interdependent.
  • Without political order, contemplative life would be disrupted by conflicts.
  • Without intellectual pursuits, the wisdom necessary to sustain political order would be lacking.

Community of Wives and Property

• Plato’s educational focus aimed at nurturing and developing the human soul.
• Community of wives and property aimed to eliminate factors hindering individual growth.
• Meritocratic society emphasized tasks based on individual nature, avoiding nepotism and wealth criteria.
• Private family and property abolished for the guardian class to prevent corrupt practices among rulers.
• Guardians lived in common without exclusive private spaces, receiving a fixed quota for subsistence.
• Plato dedicated more attention to the community of wives than property in “The Republic.”
• Negative emotions of family (hatred, selfishness) concerned Plato, leading to proposed reforms.
• Plato believed in the equality of men and women in natural endowments and faculties.
• Proposed abolition of permanent monogamous marriages and private families for guardian women.
• Marriage seen as necessary for reproduction; advocated temporary unions for childbearing.
• Strict regulation of sexual intercourse for the state’s interest; philosopher rulers decided unions.
• Ideal age for marriage set by Plato (25-55 for men, 20-40 for women); forbade certain relationships.
• Abortion recommended for illegitimate children; state-maintained nurseries cared for all children.
• Meritocratic society downplayed the importance of birth; skills and talents not considered hereditary.
• Mock marriages, rigged lottery, and eugenics used to sift and classify individual aptitudes.
• Plato regarded slavery as unimportant, not mentioning its abolition.

Critical Evaluation

Plato’s Views on Family and Property:

• Plato’s scheme appeared liberating but had excessive regimentation and little privacy.
• It eliminated emotional bonding within families.
• Aristotle (earliest critic) argued for family and private property’s importance for happiness and state welfare.
• Critics like Grube (1935) and Taylor (1926) found Plato’s proposals abhorrent.
• Strauss (1964) questioned Plato’s wisdom and defended the family as a natural institution.
• Early socialists like Saint Simon, Owen, and Fourier supported Plato’s abolition of private households and monogamous marriages.

Plato’s Views on Property and Politics:

• Plato emphasized a temperate attitude toward property for state security.
• Excessive acquisitiveness and love for possessions could harm unity and moral goodness.
• Plato understood the negative impact of economic factors on politics.
• He blamed inequality for political instability and social upheaval.
• Excessive wealth and poverty would harm the state.

Plato’s Social Classes and Control:

• Plato allowed the third social class to have private families and property under guardian supervision.
• Guardians and artisans were subordinated to the welfare of the state.
• Guardians ruled and led strict, austere lives.
• Artisans didn’t participate in politics but enjoyed emotional ties and possessions.
• Plato’s Ideal State had characteristics like class, communism, civility, control, contentment, and consensus (Hacker 1961: 30).

Plato’s Concept of Communism:

• Plato’s communism resembled asceticism, similar to a monastery.
• Seen as a precursor to modern-day socialism.
• It represented different types of economic management.
• Aimed at a society free from exploitation and oppression.
• Focused on social justice, equity, freedom, and democracy.

Regeneration of the Ideal

Plato’s Examination of Different Regimes:

• Four regimes: timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, and tyranny.
• Each regime corresponds to a type of human being.
• Plato’s pessimistic view: Believed that all regimes ultimately decay into tyranny.
• Did not provide a clear path for recovery from tyranny.

Plato’s Pessimistic View of Historical Change:

• Plato’s view of historical change was bleak.
• He believed that everything created would eventually degenerate.
• Recognized a chain of creation, decay, and dissolution in the world.
• Individuals could only briefly escape this cycle, experiencing moments of seeming immortality.

Failure to Regulate Reproduction and Education:

• The departure from the Ideal State began with a failure to regulate reproduction.
• Subsequent generations lacked the talents of their predecessors.
• Neglect of the educational process led to a decline in the quality of the ruling class.
• New rulers valued wealth and money-making over wisdom and intelligence.

Timocracy (Rule of the Honor-Loving):

• Emerged as a result of neglecting reproduction and education.
• Characterized by a love for victory, honors, ambition, and excellence in war and money-making.

Oligarchy (Rule of the Wealthy Few):

• Resulted from an increased focus on wealth and money-making.
• Society became divided into the super-rich and the very poor.
• Obsession with wealth eroded the rule of law and moderation.

Democracy (Rule of the Many):

• Emerged as a response to the excesses of oligarchy.
• Characterized by license, wastefulness, insolence, anarchy, and unchecked desires.
• Quantity outweighed quality in values and pleasures.
• Democracy eventually deteriorated into tyranny.

Tyranny:

• The final stage in Plato’s analysis of regimes.
• The tyrant ruled with absolute authority, confiscating labor and imposing servitude.
• Excessive license led to the willingness of the people to trade freedom for security.

Plato’s Classification of States in the Statesman:

• Plato categorized states into lawful and unlawful states.
• Each law-abiding state had a corresponding corrupt and lawless counterpart.
• Rule of one resulted in monarchy and tyranny.
• Rule of a few led to aristocracy and oligarchy.
• Rule of many included moderate and extreme democracy.
• Plato recognized the importance of popular participation and consent in democracy, despite its flaws.

Plato’s Second Best State

Plato’s Second-Best State in the “Laws”:

• Plato’s “Laws” presents his second-best state, recognizing the ideal state ruled by philosopher-kings as unattainable.
• Acknowledges that the philosopher-king’s ideal made excessive demands on the state as an educational institution.
• Shifts focus to the role of law in governing the state.

Government by Law in the “Laws”:

• In the “Laws,” government by law is supreme, applying equally to rulers and subjects.
• Aims to create a polity that combines the wisdom of monarchy with liberty for stability.
• Balances and harmonizes opposing political principles and practices.

Regulation of Reproduction and Land Ownership:

• Private property is permitted, with laws regulating land ownership.
• The city is to consist of 5040 households, each with an equal plot of land as an inalienable right.
• Inheritance based on the most worthy child.
• Birth control methods and population control measures are considered to prevent overpopulation.

Wealth and Economic Regulations:

• Wealth is given an inferior position, with strict regulations to curb economic disparities.
• Limits imposed on the possessions of the richest compared to the poorest.
• Excess wealth reverts to the public treasury.
• Strict regulations on gold and silver to discourage usury.

Economic Structure and Division of Labor:

• The economy is organized based on the division of labor.
• Slaves handle agriculture, non-citizen free men engage in trade and industry, and citizens exclusively perform political functions.
• Reflects principles of a mixed or blended constitution.

Political Structure and Elections:

• The selection of rulers involves multiple stages of elections.
• Selection of 360 persons to form the highest council.
• Candidates chosen from each of the four wealth-based classes.
• A blend of aristocratic nomination and popular elections for public appointments.

Topography and Cultural Aspects:

• Ideal city is a self-sufficient agricultural community.
• Emphasis on a common race, language, law, and religion, but not excessively prioritized.
• Plato’s inherent distrust and dislike for commercialism and industrialism.

Education and Religious Regulation:

• Education plays a decisive role in the state’s maintenance and improvement of laws.
• A committee of women ensures adherence to marriage laws and controls reproduction.
• Formal education begins at age three.
• Emphasis on music, gymnastics, censorship of literature and art, equal educational opportunities for women, and compulsory education.
• Religion is regulated and supervised by the state, with penalties for atheists.
• Religion provides rules of conduct and is closely linked to moral behavior.
• Harsh penalties, including death, for those who oppose religious norms.
• Laws serve both educational and coercive purposes, teaching individuals how to live best and compelling obedience.

Is Plato a Forerunner of Modern Totalitarianism, or the First Fascist?

Critics of Plato’s System:

• • Thinker: Various scholars during the early 20th century.
  • Critics from the liberal democratic tradition with a commitment to democracy and individual rights.
  • Examination of Plato’s system in the context of emerging totalitarianism in Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany, and Communist states.

Fite (1934):

• • • Plato’s aim was to protect a small group of erudite rulers (1% of the population) within a privileged leisure class (10% of the population).
    • Neglected the uniqueness of individuals and mutual respect in relationships.
    • Resembled the “ironclad” system of Communist Russia.

Crossman (1939):

• • • Plato’s assumptions were flawed, including mistrust in the common man’s intelligence, belief in revolution for just government, and suppression of freedom of thought.
    • Plato attacked the basic premises of liberal democracy: equality, freedom, and self-government.

Winspear (1940):

• • • Plato’s scheme was an authoritarian plan with concealed intentions.
    • Admired Plato’s emphasis on self-abnegation and dedication to general human welfare.

Toynbee (1934):

• • • Plato was cynical, reactionary, and inhumane, but also intelligent and concerned for the welfare of fellowmen.
    • Praised Plato’s altruism and recommendations derived from analyzing Athenian society.

Joad (1966):

• • • Noted similarities between Plato’s tyrant state and Fascism but recognized fundamental differences.
    • Plato’s Ideal State aimed at the happiness of ordinary individuals based on absolute good and justice.

Russell (1961):

• • • Questioned the feasibility of finding “wise” rulers.
    • Compared guardian rulers to the elite post-Bolshevik revolution in Russia.
    • Plato’s system lacked creativity and innovation.

Berlin (1969):

• • • Plato denied individual freedom of choice, rejected pluralism, and believed in a single solution to all human problems.
    • Attacked Plato’s historicism along with Hegel and Marx.

Popper (1945):

• • • Accused Plato, Hegel, and Marx of being enemies of the open society.
    • Advocated for an open society with freedom of thought, action, and belief, free from indoctrination.
    • Criticized totalitarian systems and emphasized the importance of falsifiable scientific theories.
    • Plato’s Ideal State was anti-individualist, anti-humanist, and anti-democratic, aiming to arrest social change.
    • Regimented, hierarchical, and unequal society with strict control, censorship, and propaganda.

Popper’s Critique:

• • Popper’s critique was fundamental and questioned the efficacy of scientific knowledge.
  • He challenged the optimism and claim of designing a perfect society.
  • Plato’s state prioritized the interests of the ruling elite and regimented the lives of ordinary citizens.
  • Popper’s critique transformed the study of Plato and challenged traditional interpretations.
  • Thinker: Karl Popper (1945).

Conclusion

Western Thought and Plato:

• • Thinker: Karl Popper (1968).
  • Western thought has often been characterized as either Platonic or anti-Platonic, with little room for non-Platonic ideas.

Plato’s Influence on Western Philosophy:

• • Thinker: Plato (Approx. 427-347 BCE).
  • Plato was the first systematic political theorist.
  • His writings spanned various areas, including art, ethics, mathematics, politics, religion, and science.
  • Established philosophy as a unified and complex discipline.
  • Introduced radical solutions to political and human life questions.
  • Initiated utopian thought in the Western tradition.
  • Influenced subsequent generations of thinkers with works like “The Republic,” “The Statesman,” and “The Laws.”

Key Themes in Plato’s “The Republic”:

• • Plato explored the concept of justice in society.
  • Explored related themes such as the right kind of life, human nature, political association’s purpose and goals, ideal political systems, constitution classification, the need for virtuous rulers, and the nature of knowledge.
  • Emphasized a good political community promoting the general well-being of all citizens.
  • Strong sense of community, where no one was favored at the expense of others.
  • Philosopher rulers were best suited for leadership due to their disinterest in power and wealth.
  • Plato used allegories to depict the ruler-subject relationship, which Aristotle criticized as being based on equality.
  • Rulers had absolute power but were under strict regulation to prevent exploitation.
  • Artisans denied political participation but retained family and property.
  • Education and specialized training were essential for rulership.
  • Plato’s classification system included three classes and three souls, emphasizing the importance of moderation and virtuous qualities.
  • Justice was valued for its intrinsic worth, leading to individual happiness.

Plato’s Views on Political Participation:

• • Plato criticized Athenian democratic practices that distinguished between government based on law and human will.
  • Preferred government based on law for moral equality and consent.
  • Plato’s ideal state represented a departure from the Athenian political faith in free citizenship and citizen participation.
  • Promoted a highly structured, ordered, hierarchical, and meritocratic society.

Plato’s Ideas on Specialization of Skills:

• • Plato argued for specialization as a fundamental moral and social principle.
  • Division of labor was not merely an economic matter but essential to the Ideal State.
  • Rejected wealth, gender, and birth as criteria for privileges and favors.
  • Society sustained by rigorous education and the science of eugenics.
  • Education crucial for individual improvement and overall societal development.
  • State-controlled compulsory education to ensure uniform quality.
  • Plato’s emphasis on education echoed in later Western societies, even by proponents of laissez-faire like Adam Smith.

Plato’s Views on Eugenics and Control:

• • Plato advocated eugenics to preserve purity and quality.
  • Suggested racial overtones with the idea that few were better than many.
  • Strict control through censorship in art and literature and dietary restrictions.
  • Plato allowed women to become rulers and legislators but not as equals with independent rights.
  • His approach aimed to utilize women’s resources for community development rather than granting them equal and independent status.

Plato’s Balance between Individual Freedom and State Justice:

• • Plato’s political theory aimed to combine absolute individual freedom with absolute state justice.
  • The challenge was to find conditions for this balance.
  • He valued the individual’s justice, security, and freedom.
  • Plato saw the state as the foundation of moral life and a source of virtue.
  • Self-interest was considered harmful and corrupting, emphasizing the state’s role in moral order.
  • The Ideal State sought unity as a precondition for both order and true freedom.

Plato’s Ideal and Conservative Values:

• • Plato’s Ideal State embodied values of order, stability, meritocracy, and rule by the few.
  • He aimed to arrest all change, envisioning a perfect but static society.
  • Philosophically combated Heraclitan logic and politically countered democratic tendencies.
  • Plato’s state, though seemingly radical, represented the values of a conservative aristocracy.

Plato’s Influence on Utopian Projects and Cautionary Note:

• • Plato’s work influenced subsequent utopian projects, such as Thomas More’s “Utopia,” Campanella’s “The City of Sun,” and Bacon’s “The New Atlantis.”
  • Plato’s utopianism serves as a warning against totalitarianism.
  • Utopian projects tend to ignore individuality, liberty, plurality, tolerance, freedom of choice, and democracy.
  • Realistic and gradual theories are more suited to address rapid change and societal challenges.

Aristotle’s Realism vs. Platonic Idealism:

• • Aristotle’s realism proved more enduring and practical than Plato’s idealism.
  • Plato sought a perfect but static state, while Aristotle’s realism embraced change and adaptability.
  • Aristotle’s approach emphasized moderation, gradualism, and majoritarianism to address societal change effectively.