• Decline of Imperial Idea The fall of the Imperial Guptas marked the end of a unified political vision in North India
• Historical Figures The idea of empire was most potent with leaders like Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka, Kanishka, and Samudragupta
• Regional Kingdoms From the mid-sixth century, regional kingdoms dominated North India’s political landscape for centuries
• Pan-Indian Control Many kings aspired to pan-Indian dominance, but only Harsha in the seventh century nearly achieved it during his reign
• Characteristics of the Era The emergence of regional kingdoms is a defining trait of this period
• Political and Socioeconomic Aspects Focus on political and socioeconomic dynamics between the Gupta era and the Delhi Sultanate
• Feudalism The period from CE 600 to 1200 is described as early medieval feudalism in North India
• Kingship and Survival Strategies Discusses the concept of kingship and dynastic survival in a politically competitive environment
• Economic and Social Aspects The economy and society evolved alongside feudalism, with kingdoms often prioritizing their local interests
• Loss of Sind The critical region of Sind fell to Arab forces in the early eighth century
• Turco-Afghan Aggression Beginning in the early eleventh century, Hindu states faced threats from Turco-Afghan invaders, leading to existential challenges
• Demise of Hindu Power The fourth section will explore the decline of Hindu political power in North India
• Sources of Historical Knowledge Understanding of feudal North India relies on diverse interpretations from historians, linguists, archaeologists, and anthropologists
• Inscriptions and Historiography Analysis includes inscriptions and historical materials, like Banabhatta’s biography of Harsha
• Feudalism Analysis Increasingly rich analysis available regarding feudalism, attitudes, and kingship
• Si-Yu-Ki The travelogue by Hsuan Tsang provides invaluable details of life in early seventh-century India
• Societal Insights Offers insights into social structures, economy, laws, religious events, and festivals
• Modern Historical Criteria While some details may not meet modern standards of historical verifiability, Si-Yu-Ki is crucial for Indian historians
• Islamic Records Useful Islamic records document the Arab invasion of Sind and aggression by warriors like Mahmud of Ghazni and Muhammad Ghuri

The dynastic landscape

• Dynastic Competition A number of dynasties engaged in fierce competition for control of North India during this period
• Beginning of Struggle Competition began in the middle of the sixth century with the later Guptas struggling against the Hunas and powerful regional families
• Emergence of Independent Kingdoms Independent kingdoms like Valabhi, Gauda, Vanga, and Kamarupa asserted autonomy at the borders of the Gupta Empire
• Strain on the Heartland The Gangetic heartland experienced undue strains as these kingdoms rose
• Supplanting the Guptas Two dynasties, the Pushyabhuti based at Thaneshwar and the Maukhari based at Kanauj, supplanted the weaker Guptas
• Geographical Control The Maukhari controlled the prime estate of North India, the doab, or the land between the Ganges and Yamuna rivers
• Marriage Alliance and Conflict A marriage alliance between the Pushyabhuti and Maukhari was followed by war waged upon them by the kings of Bengal and Malwa, resulting in tragic killings
• Rise of Harsha The Pushyabhuti prince Harsha ultimately became the ruler of both houses, establishing his capital in Kanauj and controlling significant portions of former Gupta territories
• Glory and Contentions of Kanauj While Kanauj entered a period of glory, it also became a contested site among many rival dynasties

Harsha’s kingdom

• Harsha’s kingdom lasted from 606 to 647
• Knowledge of Harsha comes from accounts by Banabhatta, his biographer, and the Chinese traveler Hsuan Tsang
• Harsha is depicted as a conqueror, an administrator, and a man of intellect and culture
• Primarily, he was a man of power whose conquests included Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Gujarat, and Punjab
• After unifying the Pushyabhutis and Maukharis, he transferred his capital to Kanauj, gaining control over the central Gangetic heartlands
• He suffered a defeat at the River Narmada against Chalukyan king Pulakeshin II
• Despite this defeat, he was recognized as the master of what was termed ‘the five Indies’
• An inscription at Aihole describes him as the ruler of the whole of North India, though this may be exaggerated
• Like the Guptas, Harsha adopted a neighbourly policy of samanta, which proved successful
• Powerful kings from Kashmir, Nepal, and Valabhi became his tributaries
• Tai Sung, the Tang emperor of China, was friendly towards Harsha due to his ties with Hsuan Tsang and his generosity to Buddhists
• Following Harsha’s death in 647, his kingdom disintegrated, and no one of comparable stature emerged, leading to over seven decades of anarchy

Yashovarman and Lalitditya

• In the second quarter of the eighth century, power in north India became strongly contested by two great protagonists
• One was Yashovarman, who ruled Kanauj from about 725 to 752 after the post-Harshan anarchy
• Yashovarman aimed to conquer the whole of India, with his armies reaching as far as Bengal
• He embellished Kanauj, establishing it as a symbol of his power and authority
• A great patron of arts and letters, his court included the famous playwright Bhavabhuti
• The other protagonist was Lalitditya Muktapida, ruler of Kashmir from about 724 to 760
• Conflict arose between Yashovarman and Lalitditya, drawing in other parties such as the Chinese, Tibetans, Arabs, and the rising Rajput dynasty of Gurjara–Pratihara
• Each of these groups had strategic agendas, creating confusion in the region
• Lalitditya managed to keep Yashovarman in check and navigated the complex political and military landscape
• Ultimately, he perished with his army while fighting the Tibetans in Sinkiang
• With the passing of both Yashovarman and Lalitditya, north India became the scene of rivalry among the Gurjara–Pratiharas of Madhyadesha, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan
• The Gurjara–Pratiharas and Palas, being part of the north, are discussed here; the Deccani Rashtrakutas’ attempts to control the north will be examined in the next chapter

The Gurjara–Pratihara kingdom

• From the middle of the eighth century, dominance over the Gangetic heartland of Madhyadesha became the ambition of two clans: the Gurjaras and the Pratiharas
• Both clans were part of a larger federation of tribes, some of which later came to be known as the Rajputs
• There is controversy regarding the origin of the Rajputs, debating whether they descended from indigenous inhabitants of India or from the Central Asian Hunas
• It’s difficult to reach a firm conclusion, but it’s clear that various Rajasthani tribes, including the Gurjaras and Pratiharas, underwent major social transformation between the late sixth and ninth centuries CE
• A process of assimilation into the Aryan Hindu fold strengthened at this time across north India, with the Pratiharas particularly emphasizing their martial qualities to be recognized as kshatriya Rajputs
• With enhanced status, the Gurjara–Pratiharas tactically moved their capital from Bhilmal in Rajasthan to Kanauj in Madhyadesha, viewed as both a spiritual and geopolitical heartland
• Control of Kanauj was crucial for pre-eminence over north India, as it facilitated the subjugation of most of the Gangetic valley
• This fertile region, with its busy water transport system and considerable trade, was essential for raising revenue for Indian rulers
• Under Harsha (606–647), Kanauj gained metropolitan status as an imperial seat and center of north India’s finest culture, but its glory peaked after the Gurjara–Pratiharas made it their capital in 815
• A ninth-century Persian traveler, Abu Zayd of Siraf, noted the presence of numerous brahman poets, astronomers, philosophers, and diviners in Kanauj
• The feudal court of the Gurjara–Pratiharas acted as a patron of learning and scholarship, encouraging and supporting artistic and literary communities from within and outside the kingdom
• Committed to defending India against foreign invaders, the Gurjara–Pratiharas pressured Sind, captured by the Arabs in the early eighth century
• An Arab account from 851 about the great Pratihara king Raja Mihir Bhoja described him as “the greatest foe of the Muslim faith” among Indian princes
• The Baghdad Arab writer Al-Masudi expressed concern about Pratihara hostility towards the Arabs, although he exaggerated their strength due to complex military realities
• The Pratiharas faced rival Indian powers, the Palas and the Rashtrakutas, who sought to deny them monopoly of power in Madhyadesha
• Despite these challenges, in the late eighth and ninth centuries, six able Pratihara monarchs, particularly Bhoja (840–85), fought their rivals to a standstill