History of the Habsburg Empire Chapter I

History of the Habsburg Empire

Chapter I – V

Harshit Sharma

Political Science (BHU)

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CH I. RHODOLPH OF HAPSBURG – From 1232 to 1291

The Hapsburg castle, or Hawk’s Castle, is located on the Wulpelsberg in the canton of Aargau, Switzerland.
It was built in the eleventh century and was occupied by warlike barons.
In 1232, Albert, the fourth Count of Hapsburg, left for the holy war against the Saracens.
Albert made preparations with military pomp and received a farewell blessing for his journey.
He gave his sons a solemn farewell, advising them to cultivate truth, piety, and bravery.
Albert died in 1240 in Palestine, shortly after his arrival.
Rhodolph, Albert’s eldest son, was twenty-two at his father’s death.
Frederic II., the Emperor of Germany, had been a patron of Albert and had presented Rhodolph at baptism.
Rhodolph was trained in martial skills and became a warrior, inheriting the ancestral castle and possessions.
He sought to increase his power through military means, exhausting his revenues and expanding his domains.
In 1245, Rhodolph married Gertrude, gaining the castle of Oeltingen and significant territory.
For eight years, Rhodolph’s ambition was subdued by his marriage and estate management.
In 1253, Rhodolph led an attack on Basle, setting fire to a nunnery, resulting in his excommunication.
To atone for his excommunication, Rhodolph engaged in a crusade against pagans in Prussia.
His penitence was accepted, and he regained favor with the pope.
Rhodolph participated in various conflicts, aiding Strasbourg and expanding his territories.
He adopted a code of honor, targeting only knights and not peasants.
Rhodolph gained a reputation for justice and prowess, leading to positions of authority in Uri, Schweitz, Underwalden, and Zurich.
Neighboring barons allied against him but were defeated by Rhodolph’s forces.
Rhodolph executed a daring attack on the castle of Balder, defeating its garrison and destroying the fortress.
He also captured the castle of Uttleberg through a clever stratagem.
The confederate barons, unable to withstand Rhodolph’s successes, sought peace, increasing his power.
Rhodolph then targeted Basle, constructing a bridge of boats to cross the Rhine and extorting satisfaction from the city.
The Bishop of Basle, unable to prevent Rhodolph’s advance, sought a truce.
Rhodolph of Hapsburg was elected Emperor of Germany in the middle of the night while asleep in his tent.
The previous emperor, Richard, had died two years prior, leading to a two-year interregnum marked by anarchy.
The electors, after much political intrigue, unexpectedly chose Rhodolph as the new emperor.
Rhodolph was astonished and initially doubted the accuracy of the news.
Waging war against the Emperor of Germany, with his vast resources, was vastly different from challenging the Count of Hapsburg.
News of Rhodolph’s election spread quickly, with Basle celebrating his ascension.
The bishop of Basle expressed frustration at Rhodolph’s election, foreseeing potential conflict.
At fifty-five, Rhodolph faced opposition from Alphonso of Castile and Ottocar of Bohemia, who refused to acknowledge him and sought papal support.
Rhodolph appealed to Pope Gregory X for support, emphasizing his respect for the Church and his willingness to fulfill its expectations.
Pope Gregory X, a supporter of European peace and Christian faith, granted Rhodolph’s request and pledged support.
Ottocar refused to recognize Rhodolph and challenged the legality of the election, claiming fraud and questioning Rhodolph’s suitability.
The electoral diet, irritated by Ottocar’s defiance, declared him an outlaw and commanded him to recognize the emperor.
Ottocar dismissed the imperial envoys with contempt, asserting that Rhodolph, a petty count, was unworthy of the position.
War between Ottocar and Rhodolph became inevitable, with Ottocar commanding powerful armies and extensive territories.
Rhodolph’s lands were comparatively small, located at the foot of the Alps.
Rhodolph cautiously prepared for conflict, leveraging family alliances to secure his position.
Rhodolph’s strategic marriages and alliances with powerful families helped strengthen his position.
Ottocar underestimated Rhodolph’s capabilities and failed to prepare adequately for the conflict.
Rhodolph’s forces quickly took several fortresses, including Vienna, which capitulated under the strain of war.
Ottocar’s army faced shortages and discontent, leading to his eventual defeat.
Rhodolph negotiated terms with Ottocar, who was compelled to cede valuable provinces and acknowledge Rhodolph as his liege lord.
On November 25, 1276, Ottocar publicly performed feudal homage to Rhodolph.
Rhodolph took possession of the ceded provinces and established his administration in Vienna.
Despite claims of friendship, Ottocar’s queen’s scorn led him to violate the treaty and defy Rhodolph.
Rhodolph prepared for renewed conflict, despite facing difficulties in gathering support from German princes.
Ottocar formed a formidable alliance and mobilized a large army against Rhodolph.
Rhodolph’s desperate efforts to rally troops and secure support were initially unsuccessful.
The citizens of Vienna feared the impending siege and urged capitulation, but Rhodolph resolved to fight.
Rhodolph mobilized additional forces, including troops from Styria, Carinthia, and Hungary.
On August 26, 1278, the two armies faced each other at the Battle of Murchfield.
Ottocar rejected Rhodolph’s offer of reconciliation and attacked with a crescent formation.
The battle was fierce and bloody, with victory fluctuating between the two sides.
Ottocar’s forces were eventually routed, with Ottocar himself being killed in the battle.
Rhodolph’s troops, bolstered by a reserve force, achieved victory.
Ottocar’s body was displayed in Vienna and buried with honors.
Rhodolph took control of Moravia and Bohemia, establishing a regency for the young king Wenceslaus.
Political marriages between Rhodolph’s family and Bohemia’s royal family were arranged.
Rhodolph focused on consolidating the Austrian provinces and addressing internal issues.
He dismantled numerous fortresses and executed rebellious nobles to restore order.
Rhodolph’s reign marked the beginning of the powerful Austrian empire.

CH II. REIGNS OF ALBERT I, FREDERIC, ALBERT AND OTHO – From 1291 to 1347

Rhodolph of Hapsburg was a remarkable historical figure, notable for his character and actions during his time.
He saved a Thuringian knight who had speared his horse in battle, showing compassion for courageous men.
During a severe drought in war with Ottocar, he refused a flagon of water, stating he could not drink alone or divide it among the army.
Rhodolph controlled his naturally violent passions and valued mildness and humanity.
He valued learning and supported intellectuals, despite criticism from his captains.
In 1288, while disguised and mistreated by a baker’s wife in Metz, Rhodolph later sent her a rich gift and shared the incident humorously with friends.
Rhodolph was devout in prayer and church attendance, protecting humble ministers while rebuking arrogant prelates.
At seventy-three, he sought to have his son Albert succeed him, but the electors postponed the decision until after his death.
Rhodolph died on July 15, 1291, in Austria, at the age of seventy-three.
Albert succeeded his father but faced discontent from the nobles due to his stern and domineering nature.
The nobles, unhappy with Albert’s preference for Swiss over Austrian nobles, conspired to divide Austria among neighboring powers.
Albert responded by quelling the insurrection, starving Vienna into submission, and securing his position.
Despite his efforts, the electors chose Adolphus of Nassau over Albert for the imperial throne.
Albert begrudgingly accepted the fiefs from Adolphus but continued to covet the imperial crown.
Albert formed a conspiracy to depose Adolphus, leveraging discontent with Adolphus’s family-centered policies.
In 1298, Adolphus was deposed by the diet, and Albert was elected as emperor.
Albert defeated Adolphus in battle at Gelheim, leading to Adolphus’s death and Albert’s ascension to the throne.
Albert faced opposition from the pope, who refused to confirm his election and criticized him as Adolphus’s murderer.
Albert declared himself emperor by electors’ choice, disregarding the pope’s authority.
The electors, pope, and King of Bohemia plotted to remove Albert from the throne.
The Elector of Mentz, confident in the conspiracy’s success, taunted Albert about the imminent change of emperor.
Albert managed to overcome a significant threat to his reign through diplomacy and military strength.
He made concessions to the pope, earning his support and breaking up a hostile league.
His main adversary was Wenceslaus, King of Bohemia, whose death in June 1305 left his young, weak son Wenceslaus III. as king.
Albert aimed to annex Bohemia to his Austrian territories, seeking the crown for his son Rhodolph.
Rhodolph was married to Wenceslaus’s widow and became King of Bohemia, but he died young, leaving Albert disappointed.
Albert then sought the crown for his second son, Frederic, but faced resistance from the Bohemians who rejected an Austrian king.
Henry, Duke of Carinthia, was chosen as the new king by the Bohemians, leading to a tumult and violence against Albert’s supporters.
Albert’s focus shifted to Switzerland, where he faced a general insurrection against his expanding power.
Albert was assassinated by conspirators, including his nephew, due to ongoing conflicts in Switzerland.
Frederic and Leopold, Albert’s sons, sought revenge on the conspirators with brutal force, punishing their families and supporters.
Elizabeth, Albert’s widow, and daughter Agnes lived in seclusion, while Agnes’s harsh actions were criticized by an aged hermit.
Frederic, known as Frederic the Handsome, assumed control of Austrian provinces but was denied the imperial throne due to his father’s unpopularity.
On November 27, 1308, Henry, Count of Luxemburg, was elected emperor, and his son John was placed on the Bohemian throne.
Frederic found solace in retaining territories gained from defeated nobles, but the death of Henry reopened the prospect of the imperial crown for him.
The diet met on October 9, 1314, with Frederic of Austria and Louis of Bavaria as candidates, resulting in Louis receiving more votes.
Frederic and his supporters did not accept Louis’s election, leading to continued conflict and war across Germany.
The decisive battle occurred at Muhldorf near Munich, where Louis of Bavaria defeated Frederic.
Frederic was captured during the battle, which ended with his army routed and many of his men killed.
Frederic was deeply affected by his defeat and was held as a prisoner by Louis of Bavaria.
Louis, showing magnanimity, consoled Frederic and offered terms of reconciliation after three years of captivity.
On March 13, 1325, Frederic agreed to renounce his claim to the imperial throne and comply with several demands in exchange for his freedom.
After liberation, Frederic’s brother Leopold rejected the terms and continued to oppose Louis, with support from the pope.
Despite pressure from the pope and his allies, Frederic honored his pledge and returned to captivity when he could not fulfill the agreement.
Louis, appreciating Frederic’s honor, treated him with respect and even entrusted him with the governance of Bavaria during his absence.
Leopold’s ongoing conflicts and efforts to rally armies against Louis continued, leading to persistent warfare.
Louis, seeking peace, proposed a new alliance where he and Frederic would jointly rule as emperors, but Leopold’s death on February 28, 1326, and the pope’s refusal to support the arrangement, prevented its implementation.
Frederic, now dejected, returned to Austria and died on January 13, 1330, leaving his widow Isabella to die of grief soon after.
Frederic’s death led to his Austrian lands being inherited by his brothers, Albert III. and Otho, who governed harmoniously and renounced claims to the imperial throne.
The dominant families in Germany were the house of Bavaria, Luxembourg, and Austria, each with significant territories.
John of Bohemia’s overbearing nature and desire for Carinthia led to conflict with the Austrians and Bavarians, resulting in a brief invasion of Austria.
The conflict ended with Austria retaining Carinthia and making concessions to Bohemia.
After Otho’s death in February 1339, Albert took sole control and continued to face opposition from John of Bohemia and other allies.
The pope, influenced by John of Bohemia, deposed Louis and elected Charles of Bohemia as emperor.
Louis fought to reclaim his throne, with Albert of Austria’s support, but died from a stroke in 1347.
Charles of Bohemia succeeded as emperor, and Albert, after recognizing Charles’s claim, continued his policy of cautious expansion until his death on August 16, 1358.

CH III. RHODOLPH II, ALBERT IV AND ALBERT V – From 1339 to 1437

Rhodolph II., son of Albert III., succeeded his father at nineteen and was well-educated in civil and military knowledge.
Rhodolph was allied with Emperor Charles IV. of Bohemia through marriage to his daughter Catherine.
At seventeen, Rhodolph managed the Austrian provinces and Swiss estates, demonstrating strong administrative skills.
After his father’s death, Rhodolph established a magnificent court in Vienna and ruled over powerful realms.
The Tyrol region, significant for its scenery and strategic location, was coveted by both Austria and Bavaria.
John of Bohemia’s son, married to Margaret of Carinthia, was a weakling, leading to Margaret fleeing to Louis of Bavaria.
Louis of Bavaria married Margaret after securing a divorce from her previous husband, which angered John of Bohemia and led to political turmoil.
The marriage and subsequent birth of Meinhard, illegitimate according to the pope, led to further conflict between Austria and Bavaria.
Rhodolph managed to legitimize Meinhard and secure Tyrol through diplomatic efforts and marriage.
Despite some opposition from Bavaria, Austria successfully retained Tyrol with support from the empire.
Rhodolph, an eccentric antiquarian, held numerous titles which provoked his father’s jealousy.
Rhodolph died at twenty-six from a fever, leaving no issue and was succeeded by his seventeen-year-old brother Albert.
Albert faced immediate threats from Bavaria after Margaret of Tyrol’s death, leading to conflict and diplomacy over Tyrol.
After three years, Bavaria renounced its claims to Tyrol in exchange for money and concessions, solidifying Austria’s control.
The Austrian territories were declared indivisible by decree, and Albert and Leopold, his ambitious younger brother, divided the realm between them.
Leopold took control of the Swiss provinces while Albert managed the Danube regions and shared Tyrol with Leopold.
Albert’s willingness to divide the realm and Leopold’s ambitious spirit highlighted the contrasting qualities of the two brothers.
Emperor Charles IV., previously wary of Austria’s growth, was pleased with the division, seeing it as a self-humbling act by the Austrian dukes.
Leopold I. of the Hapsburg family was ambitious, seeking to extend his dominions through money, war, and diplomacy.
Leopold acquired Friburg, Basle, and several counties and towns, including Feldkirch, Pludenz, Surgans, Rienthal, Upper and Lower Suabia, Augsburg, and Gingen.
Leopold was initially thrilled to secure the marriage of his son William to Hedwige, daughter of the King of Hungary and Poland, with the promise of the Polish crown.
Hedwige, a highly esteemed princess, and William, known as William the Delightful, fell in love and spent happy months together.
Hedwige had to return to Hungary due to her father’s illness, and upon his death, she was crowned Queen of Poland.
The Grand Duke Jaghellon of Lithuania proposed marriage to Hedwige, threatening to unite Lithuania with Poland and convert to Christianity.
Hedwige was opposed to the marriage and wanted to marry William but was pressured by Polish nobles and bishops.
William, unaware of the situation, arrived in Cracow to find himself rejected and driven out by Polish nobles.
Hedwige, despite her protests, was eventually forced to marry Jaghellon, who was baptized as Ladislaus, uniting Lithuania with Poland.
Leopold was deeply distressed by the loss of the Polish crown and faced military setbacks in his aggrandizement efforts.
His despondency led to neglect of his realm, resulting in insurrection in Suabia and a powerful confederacy of forty towns and cities.
The Swiss, feeling foreign rule under Leopold, began to revolt, prompting Leopold to gather troops and march against them.
Leopold’s forces, fatigued and poorly positioned, faced a fierce Swiss army, led by Arnold of Winkelreid, who sacrificed himself to open a breach in the Hapsburg line.
The Swiss, despite being poorly equipped, overwhelmed Leopold’s exhausted troops, leading to a significant defeat with two thousand Hapsburg soldiers killed.
Leopold, showing bravery and magnanimity, refused to save himself and chose to share the fate of his men, facing the same peril.
Leopold I. expressed a desire to die honorably rather than live with dishonor.
During the battle, Leopold’s standard-bearer was struck down, calling for help, prompting Leopold to seize the banner and fight valiantly.
Leopold’s body was later found covered in wounds among the dead.
Leopold I. died after a tumultuous and ambitious life, characterized by constant war and dissatisfaction.
Leopold II., his second son, succeeded him in the Swiss estates and negotiated a truce with the insurgents.
Albert, Leopold’s brother, focused on peace and prosperity in Vienna, encouraging learning and order.
Albert died on August 29, 1395, after a peaceful and productive life, leaving his only son, Albert.
William, Leopold’s eldest son, claimed leadership after his uncle Albert’s death, leading to a dispute with his cousin Albert.
An agreement was reached for joint administration of the Austrian States until the eldest surviving member would assume full control.
Albert, known for his scholarly and devout nature, took a pilgrimage and later entered a monastery, leaving William in charge of the state.
Albert died on September 14, 1404, at the age of twenty-seven, leaving a son, also named Albert.
A nine-year-old boy, Albert, was the heir to the Austrian estates, while Leopold II. took over administration with his ambitious brothers, Ernest and Frederic.
Ernest and Frederic’s claims to power led to confusion and strife, resulting in devastation and anarchy in Austria.
Leopold II. died in 1411, and young Albert, now fifteen, was declared of age and assumed the government as Albert V.
Albert V. was welcomed enthusiastically by his subjects for restoring order and prosperity.
Sigismond, Emperor of Germany, and King of Hungary and Bohemia, was related to Albert through marriage.
Sigismond, with health failing, sought to bequeath his crowns to Albert, despite opposition from his queen, Barbara.
Sigismond summoned a convention to ensure Albert’s succession and praised him for his virtues and governance.
Sigismond’s emotional plea to support Albert was met with unanimous agreement and tears from the nobles.
Sigismond died on November 1437, and Albert succeeded him, being accepted by the Hungarian diet and crowned in Prague.

CH IV. ALBERT, LADISLAUS AND FREDERIC – From 1440 to 1489

Bohemia, attached to the duchies of Austria, had a population of about three million and covered twenty thousand square miles, roughly three times the size of Massachusetts.
Hungary, nearly five times as large as Bohemia, had a similar population but was more widely dispersed.
Albert was chosen Emperor of Germany and displayed wisdom in both his own kingdoms and the empire.
The Turks, originally from a small tribe between the Caspian Sea and the Euxine, were advancing across Asia Minor and Europe with significant success.
The Turks had taken Bulgaria, Servia, and Bosnia, threatening all of Europe with their power.
Sigismond, alarmed by Turkish advances, gathered an army of 100,000 European nobles and a fleet from Venice and Genoa.
The Christian forces led by Sigismond were defeated, and Sigismond narrowly escaped, eventually reaching his home by a circuitous route.
After the defeat, the Turks resumed their siege of Constantinople, which eventually fell.
Amurath, the Sultan, expanded his conquests into Servia, capturing the fortress of Semendria and massacring its garrison.
Albert hastily assembled an army but arrived too late to prevent the capture of Semendria.
The Turks, now threatening Hungary, prompted Albert to make significant efforts to repel them.
Albert fell ill and died on October 17, 1439, on an island in the Danube at the age of forty-three.
Albert left two daughters and a pregnant queen, Elizabeth, who gave birth to a son, Ladislaus.
Elizabeth had Ladislaus crowned at Alba Regia when he was just four months old, seeking to secure his claim to the throne.
A rival faction opposed Ladislaus and supported Uladislaus, King of Poland and Lithuania, leading to two years of war.
Elizabeth died, and Uladislaus succeeded in removing the infant Ladislaus and establishing himself as the king of Hungary.
Ladislaus was taken to Bohemia, where his opponents argued that a child could not govern and proposed selecting another sovereign.
Thirteen electors chose Albert of Bavaria, who declined the crown in favor of Ladislaus.
Frederic, Duke of Styria, also declined the crown, offering to act as regent until Ladislaus came of age.
The Bohemian nobles appointed Ladislaus as king and chose two regents, who eventually quarreled, leading to civil war.
George Podiebrad, one of the regents, drove out his opponent and held regal authority, but his proposal to replace Ladislaus was opposed.
Similar violence occurred in Hungary, where Uladislaus was killed in battle, and a diet declared Ladislaus the king.
Austrian, Bohemian, and Hungarian states faced confusion and strife but aimed to reunite under Ladislaus.
Frederic, the guardian of Ladislaus, refused to send him to his realms, but the child impressed the pope with his oratory and intellect.
Deputies from the three nations tried to convince the pope to restore Ladislaus, but failed, leading to an uprising of nobles.
An army of sixteen thousand was raised to rescue Ladislaus, who was eventually returned to Vienna.
Ladislaus was placed under the care of his maternal uncle, Count Cilli, who administered Austria.
George Podiebrad was appointed regent of Bohemia, and John Hunniades was appointed regent of Hungary.
At thirteen, Ladislaus was tutored by the most learned men of the time, studying with great vigor.
Count Cilli gained near-total control over Ladislaus, becoming arrogant and dictatorial, which led to widespread discontent and conspiracy.
Cilli was driven from Vienna and the regency was handed to a select group of his opponents.
John Hunniades, regent of Hungary, was acquiring significant renown, leading to jealousy from Cilli and suspicion from Ladislaus.
Cilli attempted to lure Hunniades to Vienna to capture him, but Hunniades avoided the trap.
The Turks, led by Sultan Mahomet II, had conquered Constantinople and fortified their positions, planning to conquer Hungary.
The Turks laid siege to Belgrade, which was a crucial fortified town on the Danube.
Ladislaus, on a visit to Buda, fled to Vienna with Cilli, leaving Hunniades to defend against the Turks.
John Capistrun, a Franciscan monk, rallied forty thousand undisciplined men to support Hunniades.
Hunniades, with this new force, attacked the Turkish flotilla and secured vital reinforcements and supplies for Belgrade.
Despite fierce attacks by the Turks, Hunniades successfully repelled them, leading to their retreat.
Hunniades’ victory was celebrated across Europe, but his death from fever soon after dampened the joy.
Ladislaus is said to have rejoiced at Hunniades’ death, as it removed a rival overshadowing him.
Hunniades’ sons, Ladislaus and Matthias, faced persecution from Ladislaus and Cilli, with the eldest being executed and the younger imprisoned.
The widow of Hunniades rallied the nobles to her cause, leading to Matthias’ release and Ladislaus fleeing to Vienna.
Ladislaus later went to Prague to marry Magdalen, daughter of Charles VII of France, but died from a plague-like illness shortly after arriving.
Frederic, Duke of Styria, was now the senior Habsburg and the imperial title had become largely symbolic.
The Germanic empire was loosely held together with little real power in the emperor, leading to widespread discord and conflict.
Upon Ladislaus’ death, there was a scramble for control of Bohemia, Hungary, and Austria.
The Austrian estates were divided: Frederic took Upper Austria, his brother Albert took Lower Austria, and Sigismond took Carinthia.
George Podiebrad, through diplomacy, secured the Bohemian throne and was inaugurated in Prague despite rival opposition and papal attempts to depose him.
Frederic, the emperor, initially hoped to secure the Bohemian crown but, disappointed, eventually acquiesced to George Podiebrad’s elevation.
Frederic sought Podiebrad’s help to obtain the crown of Hungary but failed.
The nobles of Hungary elected Matthias, the surviving son of Hunniades, as king, and he formed an alliance with Podiebrad.
Frederic, vexed, sent a force of five thousand men to Hungary but was forced to abandon the attempt.
Conflict arose between Frederic and his brother Albert, leading to civil war in Vienna.
Vienna was divided into factions, with the populace supporting Albert and attacking Frederic’s supporters.
Albert led the siege against Frederic, who was relieved by Podiebrad and his forces.
The temporary reconciliation between Frederic and Albert broke down, and the conflict resumed.
Albert was excommunicated, and the civil war continued until Albert’s death on December 4, 1463.
The Turks conducted destructive raids into Servia, Bosnia, and Illyria, killing six thousand Christians and taking eight thousand captives.
Frederic, lacking energy, was more concerned with his personal property than defending his realm.
Bold barons of Carniola raised an army to drive the Turks back but suffered losses.
The Turks returned with a larger force, causing widespread devastation in Carinthia and taking twenty thousand captives.
Over twenty-seven years, Frederic’s reign saw twelve invasions by the Turks, causing immense suffering and poverty among the people.
Frederic, jealous of Podiebrad’s power, incited Matthias, King of Hungary, to invade Bohemia with promises of the Bohemian crown.
Matthias accepted the bribe and invaded Bohemia but faced an insurrection instigated by Frederic, forcing him to withdraw.
Matthias declared war on Frederic, who was isolated and unable to find allies.
Matthias overran Lower Austria, captured fortresses on the Danube, and besieged Vienna.
Frederic fled to Lintz and was forced to buy peace with a large sum of money, burdening the peasantry.
Poland, Bohemia, and the Turks attacked Hungary, leading Frederic to refuse payment of the agreed sum.
Matthias made peace with Poland and continued warfare in Austria.
After four years, Matthias controlled all Lower Austria, including Vienna, while Frederic became a fugitive seeking aid without success.

CH V. THE EMPERORS FREDERIC II AND MAXIMILIAN I – From 1477 to 1500

Adversity exposed Frederic’s weak and ignoble character, leading him to wander as a fugitive from his Austrian estates.
Matthias offered to return Austria to Frederic if he paid the stipulated money.
Frederic and his son Maximilian visited the Duke of Burgundy, who sought to elevate his dukedom to a kingdom in exchange for his daughter Mary’s hand in marriage.
A bargain was struck: Frederic would crown Charles, the Duke of Burgundy, king if he married Mary to Maximilian.
Suspicion arose between Frederic and Charles; Frederic feared Charles would use the regal title to pursue the imperial crown.
Charles wanted the coronation expedited, while Frederic wanted the marriage first, leading to a standoff and intrigues.
Frederic feigned urgent business in Cologne to avoid directly addressing his concerns with Charles.
Hostilities and intrigues continued until Duke Charles died in battle on January 5, 1477.
The King of France, Louis XI, attempted to marry his son to Mary and used military force to seize part of her dominions.
Mary, in love with Maximilian, was married by proxy three months after her father’s death.
Maximilian made a successful public entry into Ghent, gained admiration, and led a five-year war against the French, reclaiming territories.
Mary died suddenly on August 7, 1479, leaving two children, Philip and Margaret.
Frederic, using diplomatic means, appointed Maximilian as his successor.
Frederic and Maximilian sought to recover Austria from Hungary, but German princes refused to engage.
Maximilian decided to buy back Austria rather than fight, but Matthias died on July 15, 1490, without an heir.
Ladislaus, King of Bohemia, was chosen as the new King of Hungary.
Maximilian, frustrated by the loss of Hungary, forcefully expelled the Hungarians from Austria.
A treaty was reached where Ladislaus retained the Hungarian crown while Maximilian was titled King of Hungary.
Austria regained its independence and aimed to expand its power.
Maximilian, energetic and ambitious, took over the Austrian States and eyed future opportunities.
Mahomet II, having conquered the Greek empire, threatened Italy by establishing a strong garrison at Otranto.
Mahomet’s advance caused panic in Italy and the pope considered abandoning Rome.
Italy faced the threat of becoming a Turkish province, raising concerns about the future of European defenses against the Turks.
Providence intervened to avert danger as Mahomet II died suddenly, and Bajazet II succeeded him as an ineffectual sultan.
The Neapolitans, inspired by the turmoil in Turkish dominions, recovered Otranto and drove the Turks out of Italy.
Turkish troubles provided a brief respite for Christendom, as the sultan focused on subduing insurgent Circassia and Egypt.
Despite being the first sovereign in Europe, the Emperor of Germany had limited real power and often lacked personal territory.
Gunpowder, revolutionizing warfare, necessitated drilled troops and led to the establishment of standing armies.
The invention of printing and improvements in navigation contributed to societal progress and the rise of the arts of peace.
Maximilian, upon his father’s death, acted decisively against a Turkish invasion in Styria and Carniola, rallying and leading fifteen thousand men to victory.
Maximilian’s triumph in Vienna earned him the esteem and affection of the Austrians as their deliverer.
Faced with difficulties in Burgundy, Maximilian relinquished its government to his son Philip and focused on Austrian territories along the Danube.
Maximilian closely monitored the growing power of southern European kingdoms and empires.
Charles VIII of France, with a disciplined army, easily conquered Tuscany and Rome, then subjugated Naples, claiming multiple crowns.
Charles VIII’s aggressive expansion stirred European alarm, prompting Maximilian to form a secret league to expel the French from Italy.
The league, which included the pope, Italian states, and Maximilian, aimed to restore Ferdinand to Naples and ensure a lasting alliance.
The emperor summoned a diet at Worms on May 26, 1496, to gain support for the campaign against French aggression.
Maximilian addressed the diet, stressing the importance of unity against French encroachments and the threat posed to Europe.
Ambassadors from Naples, the Duke of Milan, and the pope’s legate presented appeals for military support against the French invaders.
The pope’s legate described the sacrilegious acts of the French troops and urged the diet to join a crusade to rescue the pope and his possessions.
Maximilian’s appeals to the diet were met with indifference, as the diet prioritized securing peace in Germany over foreign conflicts.
The diet insisted that internal tranquility must be established first, leading to the creation of the Imperial Chamber, a court composed of a president and sixteen judges, to regulate internal affairs.
The Imperial Chamber was designed to be impartial with life terms for judges, and decisions made by majority vote, with the president casting a deciding vote in case of a tie.
Maximilian made significant concessions to set up the Imperial Chamber and hoped the diet would provide necessary funds to expel the French from Italy.
The diet voted only a small sum of less than one hundred and fifty thousand dollars for the campaign, with restrictive conditions on its use.
Maximilian could only raise three thousand men instead of the promised nine thousand, leading Charles VIII to retreat from Italy due to the perceived threat of a united German and Italian force.
Charles VIII left six thousand men entrenched in Italy to await reinforcement, and Maximilian attempted to rally Italians to resist the French invasion.
Maximilian crossed the Alps with a small force but found that Charles VIII had postponed his expedition, leading to Maximilian’s return to Austria in disappointment.
Maximilian then attempted to regain the Swiss estates lost from Austrian control through diplomacy and force but was forced to acknowledge their independence.
Charles VIII died in April 1498, succeeded by Louis XII, who prepared for a new invasion of Italy, focusing on the rich duchy of Milan.
Louis XII offered various incentives to allies, including support to Pope Alexander VI, Venice, and the court of Turin, and threats to Florence.
An army of twenty-two thousand men, led by Louis XII, crossed the Alps in July 1499, swiftly conquering Milan within twenty days.
Duke Ludovico, who had escaped, sought Maximilian’s aid but found him unable to provide significant support, leading Ludovico to hire mercenaries and rally his former subjects.
Ludovico’s forces drove out the French from Milan, recovering the duchy and capital, except for the fortress of Novarra, where the Chevalier De Bayard held out against Ludovico’s efforts.