Geographical Frontiers

• Europe at the end of the 15th century was still largely medieval in many aspects.
• Geographical features, including mountains, hills, plains, and rivers, played a crucial role in people’s lives.
• Changes over time, such as altered river courses and reduced forest cover, have transformed the landscape.
• Europe’s geographical diversity influenced economic variations, climate, and natural resources.
• Europe had abundant mineral wealth, especially coal and iron, vital for industrial development.
• Europe’s central location, surrounded by water on three sides, facilitated access to global regions by sea.
• Russia’s eastward expansion was influenced by barriers to the west and the quest for access to the sea.
• Central Europe was a region with various states, physical features, and climates, lacking structural unity.
• Northern Europe, including Scandinavia, had a history of glaciations and a shift toward dairy production and industry.
• The Mediterranean region had a common agricultural response despite internal diversity due to its climate and vegetation.
• The Mediterranean coastline was characterized by hilly and mountainous terrain, influencing agriculture.
• Italy’s city-states depended on trade and manufacturing, but their economic glory declined in the 16th century.
• Western Europe, including France and England, experienced economic transformation with agriculture revival.
• England’s geographical isolation encouraged internal development and political centralization.
• Signs of feudal decay were evident in England and France, paving the way for modernization.

Feudal Structure in Europe

• Feudalism in Europe developed as a result of the downfall of the Roman Empire, leading to the emergence of the Frankish state.
• Feudal organization began with the growth of large landed estates, with protection provided to peasants in exchange for services.
• Feudalism created a hierarchical society with a king at the top, followed by dukes, earls, barons, and knights.
• The lowest segment of society consisted of peasants, divided into freeholders, villeins, and serfs, each with different rights and obligations.
• Feudalism was characterized by a close personal bond between lords and vassals, based on an oath of fealty.
• It led to political decentralization, with authority divided among feudal lords, while the king remained as a central but often weak figure.
• Feudal Europe was not completely feudalized, with varying degrees of feudal relationships and the presence of the concept of the state.
• Marx and Engels saw feudalism as a mode of production based on the appropriation of feudal rent from peasant tenants.
• Feudalism was marked by non-economic compulsion, where peasants did not have property rights and were subject to the authority of landowners.
• The relationship between lords and vassals was based on the concept of the fief, and feudal courts played a significant role in maintaining authority.
• Obligations were imposed on villagers, such as using the lord’s facilities and contributing part of their product.
• Market expansion began to impact the feudal economy, with a demand for luxury goods leading to the development of urban growth and manufacturing.
• Feudal cities did not fundamentally threaten the feudal order and had a shared interest with the feudal lords.
• The real conflict in feudal society was between the feudal nobility and the serfs.
• Feudalism was characterized by the fusion of landownership with military service, resulting in fragmented authority among the lords.