• The European expansion into distant lands through maritime exploration and colonization began in the late 15th century.
• Portugal and Spain were the first European countries to establish colonial empires in far-off regions, followed by other northwestern European states.
• European colonial rivalry resulted in numerous wars, ultimately leading to Europe’s domination over other parts of the world.
• Prior to the 15th century, Europe had established trade links with the East through overland routes, importing spices, silk, and other goods from India and beyond.
• Rise of the Ottoman Empire and religious conflicts led to the search for sea routes to Asia.
• Portuguese sailors, led by figures like Prince Henry the Navigator, dominated sea voyages and ocean sailing during most of the 15th century.
• Despite the belief that Portugal was cut off from Europe and had limited resources, it played a leading role in early sea voyages and colonial empire building.
• The Portuguese had engaged in conflicts with North African Moors, driven by economic motives, to capture gold supplies from the south of Sahara.
• Portuguese exploration and colonization efforts were influenced by economic, political, and personal factors, along with external financial support from foreign merchant bankers.
• African trade brought wealth to Portugal, its traders, the crown, and the aristocracy.
• Competing with the Portuguese, seamen and explorers from Andalusia and Castile, regions of Spain, also embarked on voyages to discover new territories and sea routes.
• The Portuguese’s success in occupying the Canaries spurred further explorations in the mid-15th century.

Motives Behind the Early Voyages

• Early European maritime exploration was motivated by various factors, making it difficult to pinpoint a single reason.
• The desire to break the Italian monopoly on the luxury trade with Asia (spices, silk, etc.) and find alternative sea routes to Asia was a significant driver.
• Traditionally, the exploration motives are summarized as “God, Gold, and Glory.” “God” represents the role of Christianity in voyages, “Gold” symbolizes economic motives, and “Glory” pertains to those who played a crucial role in exploring new territories.
• The idea that Turkish control of the Middle East disrupted trade routes is disputed, as Portuguese voyages began before this and spice imports from the Middle East were increasing until the late 15th century.
• Some early sea voyages near West Africa were crusades against Muslims, driven by religious motives.
• Marco Polo’s travels to Asia inspired later explorers, even though he was imprisoned in Genoa and dictated his accounts to Rusticello of Pisa.
• Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal, despite never embarking on a sea voyage himself, is credited with initiating and supporting early voyages through his patronage of research in various fields.
• The emergence of strong centralized states with powerful rulers, such as Isabella and Ferdinand of Spain, played a role in promoting geographical explorations and search for new territories.
• Economic factors included the desire to find gold and silver, and the availability of capital played a part in early sea voyages.
• The role of population pressure as a motive is disputed, with some arguing that Europe was not overpopulated when the Portuguese voyages began, and demographic growth occurred later.
• The need for spices for preserving food and meat consumption was a growing concern and contributed to the quest for direct routes to Asia.
• Controlling the slave trade and addressing labor shortages played a role in the exploration and colonization efforts.
• The combined efforts of rulers, the bourgeoisie, the aristocracy, Christian missionaries, and individuals seeking personal glory all contributed to territorial discoveries and the creation of colonial empires in a multifaceted manner.

Improvement in Geographical Knowledge and Navigational Technology

• Various ancient writings, such as Ptolemy’s Geography and works by Strabo, were translated into Latin by humanists, sparking renewed interest in exploration.
• In the Middle Ages, there was disagreement about what lay beyond Europe, but educated people believed in a round Earth.
• Early Europeans had no knowledge of the American continent and different geographers had various ideas, including the belief that the equator was an impassable barrier.
• Toscanelii suggested to Columbus that he could reach Asia by sailing westward from Lisbon on the same latitude.
• Success in early sea voyages was closely tied to map-making and navigational techniques, including geometry, arithmetic, and understanding of latitude and longitude.
• Portuguese navigators made significant contributions to navigation and cartography.
• Abraham Zacuto devised a table of the sun’s height to help determine latitude.
• Gerard de Cremer, known as Mercator, developed Mercator’s projection, a method of projecting the curved Earth onto a flat surface, making navigation more accurate.
• The use of maps and map-making facilitated sea journeys, and Portolan charts, made on animal hides, were among the earliest types.
• Ship-building techniques evolved with the development of various types of ships, including cogs, caravels, and fluyts. Caravels, influenced by Arab technology, were slimmer, lighter, and faster.
• Caravela redonda was a versatile ship, suitable for carrying naval guns.
• The Dutch developed the fluyt, known for its low operation cost.