Aesthetics and Empire, c. 300–600 CE
Chapter – 9
Table of Contents
- Around 1,500 years ago, a guild of silk weavers from Gujarat settled in Dashapura, central India, and financed the construction of a Surya temple during the reign of Emperor Kumaragupta I (437-438 CE).
- The Gupta period (c. 300-600 CE) was marked by political unification, fine Sanskrit literature, developments in stone sculpture and architecture, and economic prosperity.
- However, this traditional view of the Gupta period was revised in the 1960s and 1970s by Marxist historians like R.S. Sharma, who argued that feudalism existed during this time, with an agrarian-based political structure.
- A later perspective presented by scholars like B.D. Chattopadhyaya and Hermann Kulke highlighted regional and sub-regional state formation in the early medieval period (c. 300-600 CE) and the role of land grants in legitimizing power.
- Gupta period inscriptions include those of the imperial Guptas, Vakatakas, Kadambas, Varmans, and Hunas, offering insights into political events and land grant practices.
- Gupta kings issued gold and silver coins with their names and epithets, featuring king portraits and deity images. Copper coins are rare.
- Sanskrit literature of the period includes epics, Puranas, Smritis, and texts on polity, medicine, and astronomy.
- Chinese and Western accounts by monks and travelers who visited India during this era provide observations on people, trade, and culture.
- Despite a wealth of religious sculptures and architecture, there is limited archaeological evidence regarding everyday life during this period. Notable sites include Purana Qila, Ahichchhatra, Basarh, Bhita, and Kaveripattinam.
Political History
THE GUPTA DYNASTY
- The political history of c. 300-600 CE is reconstructed through inscriptions and coins.
- The Gupta dynasty’s origins and social background are not well-documented.
- Some scholars suggest the Guptas may have been Vaishyas, based on the name suffix ‘gupta’ recommendation in texts.
- Others argue the Guptas were Kshatriyas, citing matrimonial alliances with Kshatriya groups.
- The Guptas had alliances with the Lichchhavis, Nagas, and Vakatakas, further complicating their social classification.
- Chandragupta I (319-335/36 CE) established the Gupta empire, marrying Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi.
- Samudragupta (c. 350-370 CE) expanded the empire through military campaigns and alliances, including with various regional rulers.
- The Gupta empire extended from Bihar to parts of Uttar Pradesh, Bengal, and the Himalayan foothills during Samudragupta’s reign.
- Chandragupta II (c. 376-413/15 CE) further expanded the empire, reaching from Bengal to the Narmada and parts of western India.
- The Guptas had a matrimonial alliance with the Vakatakas and maintained relationships with various regional and foreign powers.
- Kumaragupta performed the ashvamedha sacrifice.
- Skandagupta repelled a Huna invasion and maintained Gupta power.
- The Gupta empire weakened due to factors like competition with other dynasties, rise of Yashodharman of Malwa, and Huna invasions.
- The White Huns (Hepthalites) became powerful in the Oxus valley and made incursions into India.
- Toramana, a Huna chief, conquered parts of western India, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Punjab, and Kashmir.
- Mihirakula, Toramana’s son and successor, ruled over north India but suffered defeats at the hands of regional rulers like Yashodharman and Narasimhagupta.
- The power of the Hunas declined after Mihirakula’s reign.
Ramagupta—did he exist?
- A lost play, the DeviChandragupta of Vishakhadeva, revealed a story about King Ramagupta.
- Ramagupta’s kingdom was invaded by a Shaka king, and he agreed to hand over his queen Dhruvadevi to the enemy for peace.
- Ramagupta’s younger brother Kumara disguised himself as Dhruvadevi, killed the Shaka king, and later killed his own brother.
- Kumara married Dhruvadevi, and this story is referenced in later texts and inscriptions.
- Coins found at Bayana, Rajasthan, and Bhilsa, central India, support the historicity of Ramagupta.
- Inscriptions from Durjanpura near Vidisha record the installation of Jaina tirthankara images by maharajadhiraja Ramagupta.
- Gupta genealogies don’t mention Ramagupta, as they typically focus on the direct line of succession, ignoring brothers who did not ascend to the throne.
- For example, Skandagupta is also not mentioned in genealogies after his reign.
The inscription of Chandra and the legend of the unsteady pillar
- The Sanskrit inscription is found on an iron pillar in the Jami Masjid within the Qutb complex in Delhi.
- The pillar is made of pure wrought iron and has remarkably remained relatively rust-free.
- The inscription refers to a hill named Vishnupada, but the original location of the pillar is uncertain.
- The Gupta iron pillar may have been in or near its current location from the beginning.
- Legend and folklore associated the pillar with the naming of Delhi, suggesting that the pillar was initially believed to be immovable, resting on the serpent king Vasuki, and linked to the longevity of a ruler’s reign.
- The story of the pillar’s looseness became connected with the origin of the name “Dilli,” i.e., Delhi.
- The iron pillar also bears other short inscriptions, including one from the 11th century that seems to refer to Anangapala establishing Delhi.
THE VAKATAKAS OF THE DECCAN
- The Vakataka dynasty’s history is primarily known through inscriptions and texts like the Puranas.
- Scholars have debated the original home of the Vakatakas, with some suggesting South India as the place of origin.
- Inscriptions and Puranas indicate that the Vakatakas initially established their base in the Vindhyan region, north of the Narmada River.
- The Puranas refer to the dynasty as the Vindhyakas, and the town of Kanchanaka (modern Nachna) in Madhya Pradesh was associated with an early Vakataka king.
- Vindhyashakti I was the founder of the Vakataka dynasty and is praised for his military achievements.
- Pravarasena I expanded the empire southwards into Vidarbha and formed political alliances, including a marriage with the Naga king Bhavanaga’s daughter.
- Prithivishena I succeeded Pravarasena I and was recognized by Vyaghraraja of the Nachna and Ganj inscriptions.
- Prabhavatigupta played a significant role in governance during her sons’ reigns, including Rudrasena II.
- The division of the Vakataka dynasty into multiple branches may have originated in Pravarasena’s lifetime.
- Nandivardhana became the capital during Prabhavatigupta’s time.
- Pravarasena II had a substantial number of inscriptions issued during his reign.
- Narendrasena faced potential challenges to his rule, possibly from his relatives or the Vatsagulma branch.
- Prithivishena II was the last known king of this line, and his inscriptions refer to saving his family’s fortunes.
- The Vatsagulma branch, with its capital at Vatsagulma (modern Washim), was founded by Sarvasena I.
- Vindhyashakti II had victories over the Kadambas of Vanavasi, expanding the Vakataka influence into regions like Kuntala.
- Devasena’s daughter was married to the Vishnukundin king Madhavavarman II Janashraya.
- The last known king of the Vatsagulma line was Harishena, who issued significant inscriptions and promoted extensive conquests.
- Many Ajanta caves were created during Harishena’s reign, and his minister Varahadeva played a key role in these achievements.
- Harishena is credited with extensive conquests, including regions like Kuntala, Avanti, Kalinga, Kosala, Lata, and Andhra, as per Ajanta cave inscriptions.