• Pattadakal, a village in Karnataka, is known for its temples combining elements of Nagara and Dravida styles.
• The Virupaksha temple is one of the most renowned structures in Pattadakal.
• Notable inscriptions in the Virupaksha temple mention the architect Gunda and skilled craftsmen who carved reliefs.
• The Papanatha temple in the same village showcases scenes from the Ramayana and credits architect Revadi Ovajja and sculptors like Baladeva and Devarya.
• The term ‘early medieval’ signifies an intermediate period between the ‘ancient’ and ‘medieval.’
• Historians have debated the nature of early medieval Indian society, politics, and economy.
• Interpretations range from crisis and decline to the proliferation of regional states and urban change.
• The focus of historical research has often been on class, caste, and political power, while gender relations have received less attention.
• This chapter highlights historiographical debates, developments in the Deccan, and the far south during the early medieval period.

• Sheldon Pollock identifies two key moments of cultural and political transformation in pre-modern India:

  1. Around the beginning of the Common Era, Sanskrit evolved from a sacred language into one for literary and political expression.
  2. In the beginning of the second millennium CE, vernacular languages became literary and began to challenge Sanskrit.
• Early medieval Sanskrit literature was characterized by pedantry, ornateness, and artificiality.
• It included philosophical commentaries, religious texts, monologue plays, hymn compositions, story literature, and anthologies of poetry.
• Historical and epic-Puranic themes were popular in kavya (poetry).
• Technical literature covered various subjects like grammar, music, architecture, medicine, and mathematics.
• The growth of regional polities led to the composition of royal biographies by court poets.
• Early medieval Puranas reflected increasing theistic elements in Hindu cults.
• Significant Puranas included the Bhagavata Purana, Brahmavaivarta Purana, and Kalika Purana.
• The period also saw the addition of sections on pilgrimage, vows, penances, gifts, and women’s dharma in older Puranas.
• The Upapuranas provided insight into popular beliefs, customs, and festivals.
• Hindu law (vyavahara) developed independently from dharma in the early medieval period.
• Law and legal procedures became more formalized, and state involvement in social issues increased.
• Several important Dharmashastra compilations, digests, and commentaries were authored during this era.
• Prakrit works in the Maharashtri dialect were primarily Jaina texts and exhibited artificiality and ornamentation.
• Pali texts showed Sanskrit influence, while Apabhramsha marked the transition to modern north Indian languages.
• Devotional songs of the Alvars and Nayanmars, hagiographies, and royal biographies were significant Tamil texts.
• Kannada texts associated with Jainism were written under the patronage of regional rulers.
• Literary sources, both indigenous and foreign, provide direct and indirect historical information.
• Epigraphic data, particularly royal land grant inscriptions, offer vital insights into the period.
• Chinese and Arab accounts from travelers and geographers like Xuanzang, Yijing, Sulaiman, Al-Masudi, and Al-Biruni are valuable sources.
• Inscriptions continue to be central to understanding the period.
• The assessment of early medieval numismatic evidence is debated, and archaeological data is limited.

• Chinese travelers to India in the 7th century included monks and diplomats.
• Wang Xuance, a Tang emperor envoy, made multiple trips to India.
• According to a contemporary Buddhist monk named Daoshi, Wang Xuance visited India three times.
• In his official reports, Wang Xuance mentioned that he had been sent to India three times.
• On his first mission in 643, Wang traveled to India via Tibet and Nepal, met King Harsha, and visited Buddhist pilgrimage sites.
• His second mission in 646 or 647 followed a similar route, but the delegation was attacked, with only Wang and his second-in-command surviving.
• The date of Wang Xuance’s third mission to India, which took place between 657 and 661 CE, was confirmed by a recently discovered Tibetan inscription in Skyid-grong.
• An inscription at the Longmen Grotto in Luoyang mentions Wang Xuance’s gift of a Maitreya image in 665 CE.
• Wang Xuance wrote a diary of his Indian travels titled “Zhong Tianzhuguo xing ji” but it is now lost.

• Early medieval Indian kingdoms had fluid boundaries, and their identification was based on political centers more than fixed borders.
• Large and long-lived kingdoms included the Cholas, Rashtrakutas, Palas, and Pratiharas.
• Short-lived kingdoms with limited territorial control were numerous.
• Lineage ties were central to political formations, and there was no clear dichotomy between lineages and states.
• The period saw high spatial mobility of political elites and military buildup due to incessant warfare.
• Coercive power and military might played a significant role in the politics of the time.
• Subordinate rulers sometimes granted land for military service but not as a general trend.
• Tribal communities were displaced or integrated during the expansion of state society.
• There were interactions between tribal and Brahmanical cultures, reflected in inscriptions and the emergence of regional cultural configurations.
• Claims to political paramountcy were made through titles like maharajadhiraja, parameshvara, and parama-bhattaraka.
• Subordinate rulers were identified by titles such as maharaja, samanta, mahasamanta, ranaka, and mahasamantadhipati.
• Horizontal and vertical linkages of political power were visible, connecting emerging political elites with landed groups.
• Queens sometimes succeeded to the throne in the absence of male heirs, indicating that women could wield political power in certain circumstances.
• The complex political history of early medieval India involved rivalry and grandiose claims made by different dynasties.
• The discussion focuses on major dynasties during the period c. 600–1200.

• Inscriptions are valuable sources of information on kingship in ancient India, providing insights into the ideology of kingship.
• Prashastis in royal inscriptions describe the ideal king’s attributes, often emphasizing bravery, military achievements, and physical beauty.
• Ideal kings are frequently compared to legendary figures from the Mahabharata and other ancient texts, as well as with deities like Shiva or Vishnu, reflecting their cultic affiliations.
• Kings are eulogized as protectors of their people, custodians of dharma, and maintainers of the varnas and ashramas, aiming to remove the stain of the Kali age.
• The performance of Vedic sacrifices like ashvamedha and vajapeya is highlighted in some inscriptions, but it was not a prominent aspect of the kings’ ideology in early medieval Orissa.
• Few inscriptions eulogize kings as builders of temples, mathas, or viharas, but many emphasize their generosity, often comparing them to the kalpa-vriksha (tree of plenty).
• Kings are praised for their acts of dana (ritual giving), particularly bhumidana (gift of land) to Brahmanas and religious establishments, indicating its significance as a pious activity for kings.

• Rudramadevi was the fourth independent ruler of the Kakatiya dynasty of Warangal.
• Succession in the Kakatiya dynasty had traditionally been from father to son or elder brother to younger brother.
• Rudramadevi’s father Ganapati selected her as his heir due to a lack of male successors and ruled jointly with her before she took over independently.
• Rudramadevi successfully repulsed invasions from the Pandyas, Eastern Gangas, and Seunas but faced challenges from a rebellion within her own subordinates.
• She is depicted in inscriptions and artwork as a warrior queen, projecting a male heroic image.
• The use of masculine titles and forms of her name in inscriptions was influenced by her father, Ganapati.
• Rudramadevi’s marriage to Virabhadra of the Eastern Chalukya family produced daughters but no sons.
• After her death, the throne passed to her daughter’s son, Prataparudra, marking the end of the Kakatiya line.
• Decentralized polities and a strong family-centric socio-political system allowed women like Rudramadevi to exercise political power despite prevailing gender norms associating rulership with men.

• The political history of peninsular India during c. 600–900 CE was characterized by conflict between the Chalukyas of Badami (Western Chalukyas), Pallavas of Kanchi, and Pandyas of Madurai.
• The Western Chalukyas claimed Brahmana origin and expanded their kingdom through successful wars against neighboring dynasties, including the Kadambas, Mauryas, and Nalas.
• Pulakeshin II, the most powerful Western Chalukya king, achieved numerous military victories but was eventually killed by a Pallava army.
• In the mid-8th century, the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta overcame the Western Chalukyas.
• The Eastern Chalukyas, established in Vengi, Andhra region in the 8th century, engaged in conflicts with the Rashtrakutas, Gangas, and others.
• Rashtrakutas, claiming descent from the Yadu lineage, became a dominant power in the Deccan. They achieved military successes but couldn’t maintain control over northern conquests.
• The Rashtrakutas migrated from Latur to Ellichpur, gained independence under Dantidurga, and expanded their empire, especially under Krishna I and Amoghavarsha.
• The Rashtrakutas faced both victories and reverses against various regional powers, leading to their eventual decline in the 10th century.

Memorial Stones in Peninsular India:

• Memorial stones, found in peninsular India, depict different forms of violence and conflict within society.
• They range chronologically from the 5th to 19th centuries, with a peak during the 10th–13th centuries.
• Most memorial stones are viragals, honoring men who died in cattle raids, either as attackers or defenders.
• Some stones commemorate individuals who died protecting women from molestation, helping friends or relatives, defending their land or lord, or fighting against wild animals.
• A unique stone at Kembalu records the death of a queen who led her men in a cattle raid.
• Some stones only mention the hero’s name, without detailing the circumstances of their death.
• Memorial stones reflect a long-standing tradition of honoring the deceased in stone and provide insights into the various forms of conflict and valor in the region’s history.