How do countries create and maintain political power?

• 2013 marked a political milestone in Pakistan as a democratically elected government handed power to another for the first time since 1947.
• Pakistan Muslim League (PML) won the parliamentary elections, and Nawaz Sharif became prime minister.
• Prior to this, power alternation had been disrupted by martial law or military coups.
• The elections were seen as a step forward in democracy, but the country faced a deeper challenge related to electricity and energy shortages.
• Despite a large population of around 180 million, Pakistan consumes less than 10% of the electricity per capita compared to wealthier countries like France and Germany.
• Energy shortage is a major issue, with Pakistan providing only half of its required electricity.
• Bureaucratic infighting and poor management contribute to the energy crisis, along with widespread power theft, which reduces revenue for investments and energy production.
• By 2008, Pakistan started facing rolling blackouts, some lasting over 12 hours, leading to protests and riots, especially during the summer.
• Energy crisis became a critical issue in the 2013 elections, and the incumbent government lost power as a result.
• The energy shortage highlights a deeper issue of weak state institutions, which erode political legitimacy.
• Where legitimacy is low, a weak democracy is more susceptible to collapse, potentially leading to military rule.
• The Sharif government has promised solutions for the energy crisis, but the challenges remain significant.
• Undercapacity of energy production plants and the inability to meter and bill electricity are key problems.
• A large part of the population relies on illegal electrical connections, and institutions like the military, railways, and parliament do not pay for their energy use.
• The lack of power supply in the face of growing demand hinders Pakistan’s development and stability.
• Despite promises, it seems unlikely that Sharif will fulfill his energy promises by the 2018 elections, with the situation potentially worsening.
• The chapter on the state explores the basic institutions of politics, focusing on centralized political power.
• For most people worldwide, state refers to centralized authority, which is distinct from government and regime.
• The chapter defines the state and considers its origins, highlighting that for most of history, politics was not based on states.
• The emergence of states and the reasons behind their existence are examined.
• The chapter then compares different states by discussing forms of legitimacy, the strength or weakness of states, and how power is distributed.
• The distinction between state capacity and state autonomy is essential for understanding the strength of states.
• The chapter considers the state as a force that shapes other institutions and their role in achieving freedom and equality.
• Ultimately, it raises questions about the future of the state and its ability to address challenges such as the energy crisis.

Defining the State

• State is typically defined as the organization that maintains a monopoly of violence over a territory, a concept drawn from Max Weber’s work.
• One crucial element of a state is sovereignty, the ability to carry out actions and policies within its territory, independent of external or internal rivals.
• A state must act as the primary authority, enforcing laws, defining rights, resolving disputes, and providing domestic security.
• To maintain sovereignty, a state needs power, often physical power, to defend against external actors and internal rivals.
• Armies are needed to protect from international rivals, while police forces are required to maintain domestic order.
• A state is a set of institutions that seeks to wield the most force within its territory, providing security and order.
• The state provides security by limiting the danger of external attacks and internal crime.
• In some ways, a state (especially a nondemocratic one) may be compared to a protection racket, demanding money for security and order.
• States are more complex than mere entities of force; they handle a wide range of policy areas, such as laws, property rights, health, labor, environment, and transportation.
• The state’s role includes reconciling different views and attempting to impose consensus when there is a lack of agreement on goals.
• The public views the state as legitimate, vital, and appropriate, making states strongly institutionalized and resistant to change.
• Despite challenges like war or civil conflict, states are typically re-created if destroyed, and the state remains even in crisis or turmoil.
• The state is a monopoly of force and a set of political institutions that helps create and implement policies and resolve conflicts.
• The state is seen as the machinery of politics, establishing order and turning politics into policy.
• States are important drivers of economic development, the rise of democracy, and other processes.
• A regime refers to the fundamental rules and norms of politics, shaping long-term goals related to individual freedom, collective equality, and power use.
• Democratic regimes give the public a large role in governance and individual rights, while nondemocratic regimes limit participation and favor those in power.
• The nature of a regime varies in how power is centralized and how freedom and equality are balanced.
• Regimes differ from one another, for instance, between the United States and Canada, or between China, Cuba, and Syria.
• In some nondemocratic countries, the term regime may refer to a single leader from whom all decisions flow.
• The regime can be seen as the software that runs the state (the machinery of politics), defining its capabilities.
• Over time, regimes can become outdated or unstable, leading to inefficiency, but states and regimes are not easily changed.
• Changing or reforming states and regimes is difficult, as deeply embedded institutions resist reform.
• The term government refers to the leadership that runs the state, operating its machinery and working to realize specific ideas of freedom and equality.
• Governments may be democratically elected or come to power through force or nondemocratic means.
• Governments face constraints from the existing regime, and pushing too hard against it can lead to resistance, rebellion, or collapse.
• Governments are often weakly institutionalized, with the public not viewing leaders as irreplaceable.
• In democratic regimes, governments are frequently replaced, and even in nondemocratic settings, rulers face constant threats from rivals and mortality.
• States and regimes often persist for decades or centuries, while governments come and go.
• The term country is shorthand for the combined political entities—state, regime, government—and the people living within that political system.