Babur’s Place in Indian History

Babur’s Place in Indian History

Introduction

An Empire Builder of The Sixteenth Century

Harshit Sharma

Alumnus (BHU)

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The fifteenth century of the Christian era was a period of rapid political decay, contrasting with the promising developments of the previous century.
In the fourteenth century, centralised monarchies were strong and growing, showing promise for the improvement of social and political conditions in both East and West.
The middle class began to demand and receive a share of power in the West, while strong monarchs in the East fostered trade, expanded their dominions, and suppressed disorder.
However, the fifteenth century saw the collapse of this centralised power, with states falling apart into fragments and disorder reappearing with greater force.
The fifteenth century was a time of unparalleled confusion, a formless epoch lacking coherence and stability in political society.
Despite the outward chaos, beneath the surface, the elements of modern political society were slowly beginning to take shape, ready for a more coherent structure in the future.
The sixteenth century witnessed the beginning of this reconstruction, although it was marked by harsher, less humane conditions compared to the artistic flourishing of the fifteenth century.
The arts of life had flourished during the fifteenth century, with small courts across India and Europe cultivating architecture and fine arts to a high degree.
The sixteenth century, focused on large-scale projects and enterprises, lacked the delicacy and attention to detail of the previous era.
The early sixteenth century in India and elsewhere was a period of transition, shaped by the conditions of the preceding centuries.
In the first half of the fourteenth century, the Khiljis and Tughlaqs expanded the Delhi Sultanate‘s empire from the Sindh to the Bay of Bengal, from the Himalayas to the Krishna River.
Despite the extensive territory, the Delhi Sultanate was often unable to maintain control over distant provinces, as frequent revolts made the monarchy resemble a continuous military campaign.
Ala-ud-din Khilji and Muhammad bin Tughlaq were able to exercise authority, but the central control was weakened over time, leading to the decline of the empire.
The power of provincial governors grew as they became disconnected from Delhi’s court. Many of them became independent monarchs, leading to the fragmentation of the empire.
Timur‘s invasion in 1398 ultimately collapsed the Delhi Sultanate, ending the centralized power and marking its fall with an undeserved sense of tragedy.
During the fifteenth century, there was no unified Hindustan, only a collection of small, independent states.
Despite this fragmentation, the development of these small states laid the foundation for the political reconstruction that would follow.
By the middle of the fifteenth century, these small states grouped into four major clusters of power:
- The Northern belt of Muhammadan power:
  - Sindh in the south
  - Multan
  - Punjab, nominally a vice-royalty of Delhi, but controlled by Afghan families
  - Delhi itself, claiming to be the emperor of Hindustan
  - Jaunpur, ruled by the Sharqi dynasty
  - Bengal, largely independent and distant from the politics of Hindustan
- The Southern Muhammadan belt:
  - Gujarat, a distinct geographical entity
  - Mandu in Malwa
  - Khandesh
  - The Deccan, under the Bahmanid dynasty
- Rajputana, consisting of resilient and independent Hindu principalities like Marwar and Mewar.
- The Hindu powers of the South, including:
  - The powerful Vijayanagara Empire in the South, involved in constant warfare with northern kingdoms
  - The lesser kingdom of Orissa, acting as a barrier to Bengal’s southern expansion
The political situation in Hindustan at the opening of the sixteenth century was shaped by these two major groups of Muhammadan powers, both threatened by Hindu forces to the south.
The development of these kingdoms will be outlined to assess the political forces present in Hindustan as the sixteenth century begins, focusing particularly on the Afghan Kingdom of Delhi.
The origin of the Vijayanagara Empire is obscure, emerging from the chaos caused by Muhammad bin Tughlaq‘s raids that affected the Hindu states of the south.
The empire was established by two Kanarese feudatories, Bakka and Harihara, from the Hoysala dynasty. They built the empire on the ruins of earlier kingdoms, growing rapidly.
Bakka reigned from 1334 to 1367, and Harihara from 1367 to 1391.
Abd-ur-Razzak, an Arabian ambassador, visited the empire half a century after Harihara’s death and described its power and prosperity in his book Matla-us-Sadain.
Vijayanagara was a large and populous city with a kingdom extending from Sarandip to Gulbarga, and from Bengal to Malabar—over 1000 parasangs in distance.
The country was fertile and well-cultivated, with 300 seaports and over 1000 elephants. The army consisted of 1,100,000 men.
The kingdom’s king held the most absolute power in Hindustan and was known as the Rai.
The city of Vijayanagara was described as unmatched in size and structure, with seven fortified walls, each successive wall increasing in protection.
Outside the outer wall, there was an esplanade lined with stones, preventing easy access to the city.
The fortress was circular, situated on a hilltop, built with stone and mortar, and guarded by diligent tax collectors.
The seventh fortress contained the royal palace, and the distance from the northern gate to the southern gate was two parasangs.
The area between the first three walls included cultivated fields, gardens, and houses, while shops and markets crowded the spaces between the third and seventh walls.
Four bazaars surrounded the king’s palace, with each market specialized, and flowers were vital for daily life, sold fresh in the city.
People from all walks of life wore jewels and gilt ornaments.
The king’s treasury was filled with molten gold and treasures, reflecting the wealth and prosperity of the kingdom.
The political significance of the distant Vijayanagara Empire was its constant struggle with the Southern Muhammadan states, preventing any one state from gaining ascendancy and threatening the Rajputana region.
Vijayanagara also affected the Southern Muhammadan belt, particularly the Bahmanid kingdom in the Deccan.
The Bahmanid kingdom originated from a revolt against Delhi in 1347, led by Zafar Khan, who declared himself independent under the title of Ala-ud-din.
The Bahmanid kingdom extended from Berar to the River Krishna and from the ocean to Indore, reaching its height under Muhammad and his successors.
The Bahmanid kingdom faced constant struggles with Vijayanagara, and its expansion was checked by this rivalry.
Firoz Shah (1397–1422), a notable ruler, presided over a golden age in the kingdom. He was an eccentric and talented ruler, promoting peace alongside military efforts.
Despite its large size, the Bahmanid kingdom failed to achieve lasting political importance due to the restraining influence of Vijayanagara.
After Mahmud Gawan‘s death in 1481, the kingdom began to fragment, splitting into several independent states:
- Berar (1484–1527)
- Ahmadnagar (1489–1633)
- Bijapur (1489–1686)
- Golconda (1512–1687)
The fragmentation of the Bahmanid kingdom diminished Muhammadan power in Central India by the early sixteenth century.
Khandesh, a small kingdom north of the Bahmanid realm, originated from a region governed by Firoz bin Tughlaq.
Malik Raja Farukhi, appointed governor in the area, declared his independence and ruled wisely until his death in 1399.
His successor, Malik Nasir, tried to intervene in the Deccan wars, but the kingdom’s resources were insufficient for success.
Adil Khan Farrukhi (1457–1503), the last notable ruler of Khandesh, encouraged the manufacture of gold and silver cloth and fine muslins, contributing to the kingdom’s cultural development.
Khandesh was insignificant politically but a prosperous region, reminiscent of the small states of fifteenth-century Italy, where prosperity flourished despite lack of political power.
Khandesh’s political importance was slight, but it demonstrates how civilization and prosperity can thrive without significant political influence.
Malwa was initially governed by a local Rajput dynasty and was annexed by Ala-ud-din Khilji in 1304.
The kingdom gained independence in 1387 when Dilawar Khan Ghori, a Delhi nobleman, was appointed as viceroy and later declared himself king in 1401. The state lasted until 1531.
Throughout its existence, Malwa suffered due to the rising Rajput power of Mewar, which was much stronger.
Hoshang Shah (1405–1435), the greatest king of Malwa, managed to hold his own for a time, but towards the end of his reign, the powerful Rana Kumbha of Mewar proved irresistible.
In 1440, Mahmud Khan Khilji, who seized the throne in 1435 as Wazir, was defeated and captured by Rana Kumbha‘s Rajputs.
By the end of the fifteenth century, Rajputs dominated Malwa’s politics, with Hindus occupying key positions in the state. Medni Rao, a famous Rajput chieftain, acted as a kingmaker.
Mahmud II, a puppet king, sought the help of the King of Gujarat, but Medni Rao called in Rana Singram Singh of Mewar, who captured Mahmud II in 1519 and attacked Gujarat, conquering Ahmadnagar in 1520.
The rise of Rajput predominance in Malwa’s internal politics reflected the growing influence of the Rajput confederacy at the start of the sixteenth century.
Gujarat, the last of the Muhammadan kingdoms of the South, had been conquered by Islam in 1196 and was under Delhi’s control until the time of Timur‘s invasion.
Muzaffar Khan, an able administrator, was sent by Delhi to restore order in Gujarat. In 1396, he established an independent kingdom, which lasted until 1572.
Ahmad Shah, Muzaffar’s grandson, poisoned him in 1410 and became a capable ruler, managing internal reforms and military success against Hoshang Shah of Malwa.
Sultan Mahmud Begarha (1459–1511) ruled Gujarat during its golden age, achieving peace, encouraging trade, and expanding his dominions, notably by conquering Junagadh and Champaner.
However, his successor, Musaafir II, faced misfortune, particularly when he tried to prevent Malwa from falling under Hindu domination, resulting in a disastrous war with Mewar.
After Musaafir II’s death, a disputed succession led to internal troubles in Gujarat when Babur entered India on his fifth expedition.
Rajputana, particularly Mewar, began to rise in importance at the end of the fifteenth century.
Mewar, recognized as the premier Rajput state, reached great power under Rana Kumbha (1419–1469), who built thirty-two out of eighty-four fortresses to defend his realm.
Rana Kumbha successfully resisted attacks from Malwa and other Muhammadan neighbors, and in 1440, he defeated the combined forces of Malwa and Gujarat.
After Kumbha’s death in 1469, his successor Rai Mai faced conflicts with his sons Singram Singh, Prithwi Raj, and Jai Mai.
In 1509, Singram Singh succeeded to the throne after the deaths of his brothers, bringing Mewar to the peak of its power.
Under Singram Singh, Mewar had a powerful army with 80,000 horses, seven high-ranking rajas, 104 chieftains, and 500 war elephants.
Singram Singh defeated forces from Delhi and Malwa, and no Hindu ruler in Hindustan could resist his might. His success marked the decline of Muslim power and the rise of the Rajput confederacy.
Babur‘s arrival in India shifted the balance of power back towards the Muhammadans, weakening the Rajput ascendancy.
In Sindh, the local Rajput dynasty, the Sumeras, was subdued in the thirteenth century by Islam. However, in 1336, a Rajput dynasty, the Jams, re-established independence.
Sindh was ruled by the Jams until 1520, when it was conquered by Shah Beg Arghun, a governor from Qandahar.
Shah Beg‘s son, Shah Husain, expanded the conquest by annexing Multan, and Sindh remained under Arghun rule until it was fully incorporated into Delhi in 1590.
Bengal was relatively isolated and self-sufficient after its conquest by the Muhammadans, continuing to nominally submit to Delhi throughout the thirteenth century.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq‘s reign saw Bengal revolt, and after a period of anarchy, Shams-ud-din took control in 1344 and established a dynasty that lasted until 1386.
Following further anarchy, Raja Kans, a Hindu zarqindar, ruled until 1426.
In 1461, Malik Andil, a former slave, ascended the throne with the support of Abyssinian mercenaries, ruling for over thirty years while maintaining order and prosperity.
Bengal was commercial, literary, and artistic, but had little influence on the politics of Hindustan, interfering minimally with its neighbors.
Jaunpur became independent in 1394 when Mahmud bin Tughlaq appointed his minister, the eunuch Khwaja Jahan, as governor. He declared himself independent with the title Malih-us-Sharq.
Under his adopted son, Ibrahim Shah (1401-1440), the kingdom grew in power, maintaining its independence and focusing on architecture, industry, and agriculture.
Mahmud Shah (1440-1457), his successor, attempted to expand his empire but was defeated by Bahlol Lodi, the Viceroy of Punjab, and forced to retreat.
Mahmud Shah died in 1457, leading to a period of intrigue. Husain Shah, the last Sharqi king, emerged victorious.
Husain Shah expanded his kingdom by conquering Orissa and attacking Gwalior, forcing the Raja to pay tribute. In 1473, he attacked Bahlol Lodi, but was defeated, leading to Jaunpur being annexed by Delhi in 1478.
Delhi’s Kingdom: The Saiyid dynasty ended in 1451 with the abdication of Shah Alam. Bahlol Lodi, from the Lodi tribe, succeeded in establishing a strong rule in Delhi.
Bahlol Lodi was a respected ruler, described as a simple man who avoided display and had personal connections with his subjects. He addressed nobles as Masnad Ali and often sought to pacify them by going to their homes and apologizing personally.
Under Bahlol Lodi, Delhi was brought under order, and Jaunpur was re-annexed to Delhi. However, his rule was personal, relying on the support of his tribe rather than official structures.
Sultan Bahlol’s strategy to strengthen his position involved writing letters (firman) to Afghan chiefs in Roh offering them positions in his service, leading to their mass support.
Sultan Sikandar, Bahlol’s son, ruled from 1489-1517 but struggled to fill his father’s shoes. Despite nominal control over Delhi, Jaunpur, and Punjab, actual power lay with local vassals.
The country was divided into jagirs (land grants) given to Afghan tribes such as the Farmulis, Lohanis, Sarwanis, and Sahu-Khails.
Significant jagirs included Saran and Champaran held by Mian Husain, and Oudh, Ambala, and Hodhna controlled by Mian Muhammad Kala Pahar.
Azam Humayun, a prominent jagirdar, had 45,000 horse and 700 elephants, and bought 2,000 copies of the Quran annually.
Daulat Khan had 4,000 cavalry, and other nobles controlled significant military forces with as many as 25,000 troops among the lesser chiefs.
The period of openhanded rule during Sultan Sikandar’s reign was later regarded as a Golden Age by historians of the Afghan dynasty during the time of the Mughal emperors.
Historians frequently describe the peaceful, orderly administration of Sultan Sikandar’s reign, which was marked by stability and integrity.
Sultan Sikandar ensured that every business had its appointed time and established customs were not changed. He maintained a regular process of accounting for prices and events in different districts.
If anything seemed wrong, he conducted immediate inquiries to address it. Business during his reign was described as honest, straightforward, and peaceful.
A new life prevailed during his reign, where people, both high and low, practiced politeness, self-respect, integrity, and devotion to religion.
The study of belles lettres was promoted, and factory establishments were encouraged. Young nobles and soldiers were engaged in useful work.
Nobles and soldiers were content, with each chief being appointed to the government of a district. Sikandar aimed to gain the goodwill and affection of the people.
He put an end to war and disputes with other monarchs and nobles, ensuring peace for the sake of his officers and troops.
Sikandar’s reign was marked by safety, enjoyment, and popularity, winning the hearts of both the high and low.
The peaceful and prosperous period ended under Ibrahim, Sikandar’s son, who, despite being brave, was haughty, morose, and suspicious.
Ibrahim’s tyrannical rule alienated the nobles, weakened his power, and led to active opposition from those he should have conciliated.
His cruelties and crimes reversed the positive outcomes of his father’s reign, leading to distraction and rebellion in the kingdom.
Panjab and Jaunpur revolted, and Ibrahim was twice defeated by the Rajputs.
At the opening of the sixteenth century, the Muhammadan powers were weak and divided. The Rajput confederacy, led by Mewar, was on the brink of seizing the empire.
However, the Fates intervened. Singram Singh was cheated of his prize, and the forces of Islam were re-established, while the Rajputs were doomed to endure rather than enjoy their victory.
The key turning point was the arrival of Zahir-ud-din Muhammad, also known as Babur, who would become the Tiger and alter the course of history in India.