• Human societies are not uniform and differ in various aspects.
• Sociologists focus on comparing societies and studying them through macrosociology, which involves large-scale social system analysis.
• Macrosociology requires the classification of societies for comparative analysis.
• Historians and social philosophers developed classification schemes long before sociology became an independent science.
• Sociologists continued the tradition of classification, building on previous efforts.
• Classical sociologists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries sought to create “master social types” to classify societies.
• Early sociological classification schemes often had value judgments and limitations.
• Some early classifications include:
  • Morgan’s Classification:
    • Anthropologist Lewis Henry Morgan divided societies into three groups: savage, barbarian, and civilised.
    • His theory was based on the unilineal theory of evolution, suggesting societies progress from savagery to civilisation.
  • Comte’s Classification:
    • Auguste Comte believed societies evolve through stages of belief or ideology.
    • The stages correspond to different types of societies:
      • (i) military society, (ii) legal society, (iii) industrial society.
    • These stages are linked to thinking types:
      • a) theological thinking, b) metaphysical thinking, c) positive thinking.
  • Spencer’s Classification:
    • Herbert Spencer classified societies into two categories:
      • (i) militant societies (where the regulating system is dominant).
      • (ii) industrial societies (focused on the sustaining system, emphasizing service).
• Classification schemes like the above have their weaknesses, but they help provide perspectives on how societies function.
• A common modern classification of societies is based on the mode of subsistence.

Classification Of Societies Based On The Mode Of Subsistence OR The Types Of Technology

• The social world consists of thousands of human societies, which need to be classified for comparison and analysis.
• Lenski and Lenski (1970) proposed that societies can be classified based on the technologies or subsistence strategiesused to exploit the natural environment.
• Societies using more productive strategies tend to grow larger and more complex.
• More complex societies often succeed at the expense of those using more primitive technologies.
• There is a general trend of socio-cultural evolution, similar to biological evolution, where societies must adapt to their environment to exploit food resources.
• In the process of socio-cultural evolution, some societies have evolved faster than others, while some have remained at a particular level.
• All societies have changed in ways that are unique to them.
• Societies can be classified based on the level of technology or the type of subsistence strategy they rely on:
  • (i) Hunting and Gathering Societies,
  • (ii) Pastoralism or Pastoral Societies,
  • (iii) Horticultural Societies,
  • (iv) Agricultural Societies,
  • (v) Industrial Societies (including Pre-industrial Societies).
• Core technology or subsistence strategy significantly impacts values, beliefs, and all social structures such as family, religion, politics, economics, and education.
• The importance of core technology or subsistence strategy allows for an important classification system of societies.

HUNTING AND GATHERING SOCIETIES

• According to Gerhard Lenski in “Human Societies” (1970), the oldest and simplest type of society is the Hunting and Gathering Society.
• Such societies have a small and sparse population, a nomadic lifestyle, and primitive technology.
• They use basic tools like stone axes, spears, and knives.
• Hunting and gathering societies rely on hunting wild animals and gathering food (fruits, nuts, vegetables) for survival.
• These societies exploit wild or non-domesticated food resources for subsistence.
• All societies relied on hunting and gathering until about two thousand years ago. Some isolated peoples still follow this way of life, e.g.:
  • Aranda of Central Australian desert,
  • San people of Kalahari desert in Southern Africa,
  • Itibamute Eskimos,
  • Bushmen of Southwestern Africa.

Characteristics of Hunting-Gathering Societies:

• Small in Size: Groups are small and scattered, with numbers sometimes under 40-50 members due to limited food resources.
• Nomadic in Nature: People are constantly on the move to find new food sources once their current area is depleted.
• Not Desire to Acquire Wealth:
  • No individual wealth acquisition as there’s no wealth to acquire.
  • Sharing is a norm; those with surplus food are expected to share, serving as a social insurance for future needs.
• Family and Kinship Are The Only Defined Institutions:
  • Family handles education, economic production, and protection.
  • Kinship is crucial, with most members related by ancestry or marriage.
  • Society is organized around kinship, and individual families are not distinct units.
• Absence of Political Institutions:
  • No distinct ruler or ruled.
  • Statuses are essentially equal, with decisions made through group discussion.
  • Warfare is uncommon due to the lack of property to fight over.
• Limited or No Division of Labour:
  • Roles are based on age and sex, but there is no specialized occupational role.
  • Gender-based division of labour exists but with no gender inequality.
  • Production is communal and co-operative; distribution is based on sharing.
• Constant Need to Face Danger:
  • Hunters and gatherers often face extinction threats due to harsh environments.
  • Members must have complex knowledge of plants, animals, and environmental conditions to survive.
• Simple Religious Belief:
  • Religion is not complex and does not include powerful gods.
  • They believe in unseen spirits but do not necessarily worship them.
• Despite appearing alien to modern society, the hunting and gathering lifestyle was common for most of human history.