I

• Art in India was largely employed in the service of religion and religious cults, often intertwined with different forms of religious practices.
• Art objects served various purposes such as magical instruments, representations of myths, symbols, ideologies, and tools for concentration on ideas.
• Buddhist, Jain, Brahmanical, Sikh, Saiva, and Vaishnava art are modern labels used by historians to categorize art according to the religion or cult it served, not by the art form itself.
• Buddhist, Jain, and Brahmanical music, dance, and drama are rarely mentioned, although these arts were likely practiced within these communities.
• Brahmanical, Buddhist, or Jain literature is often categorized as sacred, but creative writing is less frequently discussed.
• Architecture in these religious contexts (e.g., Buddhist and Brahmanical) was influenced by the requirements for symbols, worship, and congregation, but art itself was not always tied exclusively to religion.
• Traditional India did not distinguish art forms by religious labels, unlike modern scholarly interpretations.
• Art in secular life was actively practiced, evident in buildings, homes, and decoration.
• Kings and princes built forts and palaces, and decorated the walls with murals, not always religious in nature.
• Terracotta toys, human figures, and animal figures decorated common people’s homes.
• Music, dance, and drama were part of social life, often non-religious, and performed for enjoyment.
• Vātsyāyana’s Kāmasūtra suggests that painting was an important part of urban culture for pleasure and recreation.
• Poetry, drama, and literature were pursued for enjoyment, often focused on love, romance, wars, and heroic deeds.
• Bharata’s Nātyaśāstra and other later works emphasized that arts were for recreation and entertainment in secular social life.
• Indian urban society had a class of connoisseurs who enjoyed the arts and viewed them as a means of recreation and enjoyment.
• Monarchs like Aśoka and Akbar used art to promote their socio-political ideas and ideologies.
• Art in traditional secular life served both social and individual purposes, such as pleasure, enjoyment, and recreation.
• Art was also a powerful tool for teaching and influencing the human mind and imagination.
• Art served multiple purposes, both religious and secular, and was used to meet the needs of society.
• Whether for secular or religious purposes, art was valued for its ability to please the senses, offer enjoyment to the psyche, and stimulate the mind.
• Art has always been an effective medium for human expression, education, and influence.

II

• The aim of art in traditional India is questioned: Was it intended for the purposes discussed above?
• The nature and effect of art vary based on the receptivity of the individual or group, depending on their cultural and sensory development.
• A village peasant would not respond to high classical art (e.g., Kalidasa’s drama, Sarnath Buddha figure) in the same way as a cultured and sensitive person would.
• Folk songs, narrative ballads, and early Buddhist reliefs may appeal more to those less exposed to refined art forms.
• Art’s pleasure and power depend on the ability of the individual to appreciate and respond to it, influenced by the mindand senses.
• The nature of art objects themselves also impacts their effect, such as the chhandas (rhythm) that informs the object, the form, and the theme presented.
• The artist may work at different levels, such as closely representing nature, translating a story literally, interpreting a story with personal vision, or creating a new theme based on imagination.
• Multiple levels and approaches can coexist in one artwork, not necessarily mutually exclusive.
• The viewer, listener, or reader may also engage with the art at different levels, depending on their cultural and intellectual development.
• Chhandas, the rhythm or laws of art, must inform an artwork to attract and please the human senses and sensibilities.
• The first Indian speculative thought on art, as early as the Aitareya Brahmana, focused on art’s ability to please the senses and sensibilities.
• Over time, speculation about the aim of art deepened, expanding beyond the senses while still including them.
• Speculative thought on art follows logical categories and presents ideal situations, not necessarily reflecting real artistic practice.
• These speculations define the highest standards by which art objects are judged and the nature of artistic activity is understood.