TRADITIONAL HINDU SOCIAL ORGANISATION

Traditional, Modern and Post-Modern Societies

• Traditional society emphasizes religion (and magic) in behavioral norms and values, implying continuity with the past.
• Rituals, sacrifices, and holy feasts are widely accepted.
• Individual’s status is determined by birth, with no striving for social mobility.
• Behavior is governed by customs, traditions, norms, and values closely tied to the past.
• Social practices vary only slightly across generations.
• Social organization is based on hierarchy.
• Kinship relations dominate interactions, and the individual identifies with primary groups.
• More importance is given to the individual’s position than his actual standing in society.
• People in traditional society are conservative.
• The economy is simple (tool economy), with low economic productivity above subsistence level.
• Mythical thought predominates over logical reasoning.
• Modern society marks a substantial break from traditional society, focusing on science and reason.
• Six characteristics of modern society:
  • Decline of religion, rise of a secular materialistic culture.
  • Feudal economy replaced by an economy based on money, large-scale production, consumption, private property, and capital accumulation.
  • Secular political authority dominates, and religious influence in politics is marginalized.
  • Decline of social order based on simple division of labor, with the rise of specialization and new class structures.
  • Formation of new nations and communities, each with its own identity and traditions.
  • The rise of scientific, rationalist thinking.
• Modern society characterized by:
  • Emphasis on reason and rationality.
  • Belief in progress and the role of government and the state in facilitating it.
  • Focus on economic development and complex division of labor.
  • View of human beings as having great control over nature and the environment.
  • Tendency to view the world in terms of dualisms or opposites.
• Post-modern society, or late modernity, focuses on critical awareness and the damaging effects of applied science on nature, the environment, and humanity.
• It critiques the unintended negative consequences of progress.
• From nationalism in modern society, post-modern society shifts towards globalization.
• Instead of focusing on economic development, post-modern society emphasizes culture.
• Unlike modern society, post-modern society values unities, similarities, and connections over dualisms.

Traditional Indian Society: Three Perspectives

• Indian society can be perceived as a traditional society using three sociological perspectives: functionalist, Marxist, and social action.
• Durkheim’s functionalist perspective: Major social institutions (family, kinship, economy) exist to meet fundamental human needs like procreation, social support, and production.
• Marxist perspective: Class conflict is a fundamental social force, with society’s functioning affected by conflicting class interests.
• Weber’s social action perspective: Focuses on how individuals affect and create society, rather than society shaping the individual’s experience.
• The first two perspectives (functionalist and Marxist) are structural in nature, concerned with how society influences individual and group behavior.
• Structural sociologists focus on how aspects like religious beliefs, caste, class, family, kinship, tool vs. industrial economies, and social position affect the individual’s roles in society.
• Functionalism stresses consensus in social behavior, while Marxism and social action perspectives stress conflict.
• According to O’Donnell (1997), the six key questions about traditional Indian society are:
  1. How is society constructed?
  2. How does society operate?
  3. How are some groups in society more powerful than others?
  4. What causes social change?
  5. Is society based on consensus or conflict?
  6. What is the relationship of an individual to society?
• Traditional Indian society can be analyzed using these six bases to understand its structure and dynamics.

TRADITIONAL HINDU SOCIETY: BASIC TENETS AND DOCTRINES

Hindu View of Life: Karma and Dharma

• The Hindu view of life in Vedic thought states that man is composed of desires (kama).
• As one’s desires are, so is one’s discretion/insight (kratu), and as discretion is, so are deeds.
• As deeds are, so is destiny.
• If a man still has desires while alive, he will be reborn; if all desires are eradicated, he becomes one with Brahma(God).
• To achieve salvation (moksha), one must eradicate discretion (kratu) to destroy desires.
• Desire binds a man to this world, leading to birth and death.
• Karma (deed) serves as the link between desires and rebirth.
• By eliminating desires, one attains immortality and salvation.
• The Gita presents a different approach to desires, emphasizing sublimation rather than eradication.
• The philosophy of karma in the Gita stresses understanding the true nature of action.
• Hindu philosophy maintains the continuity of the present with the past, rooted in tradition, and projected into the future.
• Respect for tradition in Hinduism aims for homogeneity and harmony of thought.
• Different historical periods in Hinduism emphasize various concepts:
  • Satyayuga: Truth is dharma.
  • Tretayuga: Yajna (sacrifice).
  • Dwaparayuga: Jnana (knowledge).
  • Kaliyuga: Dana (alms).
• Hindu philosophy includes theological ideas like papa, punya, and dharma, which will be discussed as core tenets of Hinduism.

Basic Tenets of Hinduism

• Hinduism believes in the concepts of equality, karma, and rebirth.
• Moksha (salvation) is considered the ultimate goal of life.
• Toleration is viewed as an important aspect of individual character.
• Non-violence is a significant feature of social life.
• The merger of individual soul into the ultimate soul is emphasized.
• Normative principles of Hinduism are based on beliefs, ideals, and logic of permissiveness (permission for actions to happen).
• Hinduism supports liberalism (generous and free views, opinions, and principles).
• It embraces being and becoming, creation and destruction.
• Hedonism (the belief that pleasure is the chief goal) is acknowledged.
• Utilitarianism is present, focusing on the greatest good.
• The concept of spiritual transcendence is key, representing the state beyond human experience, reason, and description.

Theological Ideas

• Hinduism involves certain theological ideas regarding the nature of God and the foundations of religious belief.
• Concepts like punarjanma (rebirth), immortality of atma (soul), papa (sin), punya (merit), karma (deeds), dharma(morality), and moksha (salvation) are central.
• Karma teaches that a person is born into a particular social group (caste/family) due to the deeds performed in their previous life (purva janma).
• Dharma emphasizes that following good deeds in the present birth will lead to being born in a higher social group in the next birth.
• Moksha reminds that papa and punya will determine the release of the soul from the cycle of birth and death.

Pollution and Purity

• Pollution and purity are important concepts in Hinduism, though the rules vary by region.
• These ideas affect various aspects of life, including commensal relations, physical distance between different groups, inter-caste marriages, and personal life events like birth, marriage, menstruation, and death.
• The concept of pollution is related to birth, not cleanliness.
• A person must undergo a purificatory rite (simple or elaborate) based on the severity of the violation of purity rules.
• The caste council plays a key role in taking necessary disciplinary actions in matters of pollution and purity.

Hierarchy

Hierarchy in Hinduism is based on:

• Division in varnas and castes.
• Charismatic qualities (guna) of individuals:
  • Sattva: the highest and most virtuous quality, associated with sages and Brahmins.
  • Rajas: qualities of commitment to action and power, attributed to kings and Kshatriyas.
  • Tamas: the lowest quality, associated with dullness and profane inclinations.
• Values regarding life-goals:
  • Kama: pursuit of sex and material goals of sensory enjoyment.
  • Artha: achieving wealth.
  • Dharma: fulfilling moral obligations in social, religious, and cultural realms.
  • Moksha: pursuit of salvation from the cycle of birth and rebirth.

Idol-Worship

• A common feature of Hindu religion is its belief in idol-worship.
• The worshipped idols vary based on the sect, with different sects worshipping idols like Krishna, Rama, Shiva, Ganesh, Hanuman, etc.
• Each sect keeps its idol in a separate temple and worships it on specific occasions.
• The idea of not allowing Malecchas (including Muslims and untouchables) in these temples was aimed at protecting the temple from pollution, rather than confronting another religion.

Monolithic Character

• Hinduism is not a uniform monolithic religion, but a juxtaposition of flexible religious sects.
• This flexibility is a major strength, allowing the existence of even non-caste, anti-Vedic groups.
• These groups may deny the approval of the injunctions of the Dharmashastras.

Tolerance

• Tolerating opinions, beliefs, customs, and behaviors of other religions and castes is an important feature of Hinduism.
• One view sees Hinduism as a secular and tolerant philosophy, embracing various cults and sects, all of which acknowledge common Hindu divinities.
• The segregation of communities and their distinct religious identity allowed each group to lead a comparatively separate existence.
• Clashes occurred primarily in the competition for patronage, which explains the notion of tolerance in Hinduism.
• Another group of scholars points to religious intolerance within Hinduism, referencing sectarian rivalries and conflicts.
  • The Shaiva sect initially persecuted Buddhists and Jains, with Buddhist monasteries destroyed and monks killed by Mihirakula and Shashanka in northern India during the first millennium AD.
  • Rewriting texts from a Vaisnava perspective was another form of religious intolerance, done to correct the Jaina perspective.
  • Among ascetic groups, there was hostility between the Dasnamis and Bairagis over the issue of precedence at the Kumbh Mela.
• This antagonism was not between Hindus and another religion, but between particular sects within Hinduism.

Segregation

• Another characteristic of Hinduism is its support for the segregation of castes in social relations, worship, and religious beliefs.
• The nature of this segregation is based on the status of varnas/castes, which were created from the body of Purusha:
  • Brahmins from his mouth.
  • Kshatriyas from his arms.
  • Vaishyas from his thighs.
  • Sudras from his feet.
• Some argue that only certain sects and pramukhs believed in such segregation, but this is not entirely correct.
• All Hindus believe that membership in a particular group is determined by birth, not by merit.
• However, it’s noted that if intellectual positions had been entirely determined by birth in a particular group, various sects in Hinduism could not have flourished and would have decayed.

Non-violence

• Hinduism is characterized by non-violence, but there is debate about whether Hinduism truly believes in it.
• One school accepts that Hindus are non-violent, while another argues that religious violence is not alien to Hinduism.
• The message in the Gita does not promote non-violence.
• The emphasis on sacrifices is not based on the ideal of non-violence.
• However, the Bhakti cult, which became predominant in the sub-continent by the seventeenth century, was against the use of violence.
• Non-violence became more prominent in Hinduism after the emphasis on devotional and ritual aspects, with the rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism cults after the twelfth century AD.
• Devotional-liberal traditions grew in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries AD with the emergence of saints (bhaktas) like:
  • Kabir and Tulsidas in Uttar Pradesh.
  • Guru Nanak in Punjab.
  • Chaitanya in Bengal.
  • Meera Bai in Rajasthan.
  • Tukaram and Ramdas in Maharashtra.
• These saints carried religious beliefs to the people in their own languages and transformed ritual-ridden beliefs into simple humanistic values, criticizing orthodoxy.

Purusbartha: Values of Hindu Culture

• Hindu culture is centered around four values: kama, artha, dharma, and moksha, based on the understanding of human personality having multiple needs.
• Kama refers to the satisfaction of bodily pleasures, including food, sex, and sensory experiences. It is guided by the mind, with the principle of selecting pleasures that promote health and well-being.
• Seeking bodily pleasures is not inherently bad; pain is a result of excessive or improper pleasures. For instance, tasty food may give pleasure but can cause health issues like indigestion.
• Kama involves the development of human society’s pleasures such as art, music, fashion, etc., and includes sexual pleasure as a natural bodily desire.
• Artha refers to the need for power over nature and humans, including the acquisition of wealth and scientific progress. It involves human desires for control, such as the conquest of nature or global power politics (e.g., nuclear power).
• Artha is valuable for human development, but it becomes evil when not guided by righteousness and consideration for others’ rights and needs. Without ethical principles, it could lead to destruction.
• Dharma refers to the integration and duty within individuals, communities, and the world. It ensures stability and unity, like rules in institutions that govern various roles (teachers, students, staff).
• Duties in society are guided by customs, conventions, and laws. Dharma is seen as crucial for existence, enjoyment, and evolution.
• Two main categories of duties:
  • Varnashram dharmas (specific to stages of life: student, family, retired, and renunciation) and
  • Sadharan dharmas (common duties for all: non-stealing, non-violence, truth, patience, etc.).
• Dharma includes both duties (external actions) and virtues (internal dispositions). Virtues represent reflective morality, while duties are conventional and static.
• Virtue leads to a higher state of morality than simply performing duties. For example, a son’s love for parents is virtuous, while economic support is a mere duty.
• Dharma helps in maintaining social harmony, while virtues lead to internal integrity.
• Moksha is liberation, or the realization of the soul’s identity with Brahma (total reality). It is the highest spiritual goal in Hindu culture.
• Shankara distinguishes between Mukhya Proyojanas (ultimate ends) and Gouna Proyojanas (secondary ends), where pleasure is a secondary end while achieving moksha is the ultimate goal.
• Pleasure is of two types: empirical (bodily) and transcendental (spiritual). Moksha represents the realization of the soul’s oneness with Brahma.
• To attain moksha, Hindu culture prescribes two stages:
  • Praurtti Marg: enjoyment of the material world and bodily satisfaction.
  • Nivrta Marg: detachment and renunciation of worldly desires, leading to moksha. These two stages are continuous, one leading to the other.

Ashramas: Stages of Life in Realising the Ideal of Life

• Ashramas are the stages of life that provide training and environment to realize the ideal of life.
• There are four ashramas: Brahmacharya (student life), Garhasthya (family life), Vanaprastha (retired life), and Sannyasa (life of renunciation).
• The first two ashramas (Brahmacharya and Garhasthya) are related to Praurtti Marg, while the last two (Vanaprastha and Sannyasa) are related to Nivrtti Marg.
• Vishesha Dharmas are specific duties for each ashrama. The varnas refer to duties related to professional roles: scholarship, defense and administration, production and distribution, and unskilled labor.

Brahmacharya Ashram

• A period of education before becoming independent.
• Education involves learning practical skills, crafts, and professional training from gurus.
• The focus is on discipline, chastity, simplicity, obedience, and spiritual development.
• Students take four vows: sexual purity, simplicity, respect for teachers, and devotion to knowledge and spiritual practice.

Garhasthya Ashram

• Covers an active period of family life and social membership, typically from age 25 to 50.
• Marriage is considered a spiritual sacrament, not merely a biological or social contract.
• The focus is on purity of heart, mutual love, and fulfilling household duties like raising children and honoring ancestors.
• Marriage is seen as a union that transcends this life and continues through future births.

Vanaprastha Ashram

• Occurs after responsibilities to children are over, encouraging social welfare work and detachment from worldly attachments.
• Retirement is not about withdrawing from society but rather contributing as a guide for social problems, especially in rural areas.
• The focus is on austerity, asceticism, and working for human welfare.
• This stage allows the youth to experiment and contribute to society’s richness.

Sannyasa Ashram

• The final stage of life, focused on universal consciousness and detachment from personal desires.
• Unlike Vanaprastha, the Sannyasa stage emphasizes disinterested action, where actions are done without concern for personal gain or loss.
• A Sannyasi is motivated by duty, conscience, and the universe as his home, free from passions and fears.
• Sannyasa is not about inaction but about the highest level of motivation and action for the collective good.
• These stages are for average persons, and exceptionally gifted individuals (geniuses) like Tagore and Shelley may bypass these stages and still reach the highest level of realization.

Varnas: Four-fold Order of Society

• Varna order is different from the caste system.
• The caste system has caused social divisions, suffering, and injustice, making it politically, morally, and economically disastrous.
• The varna system divides people based on aptitudes, abilities, and vocations:
  • Scholarship
  • Administration and defense
  • Production and distribution
  • Unskilled labor
• The four varnas are:
  • Brahmins: Priesthood, teaching, medicine, and knowledge.
  • Kshatriyas: Fighting, ruling, administration, and protection.
  • Vaishyas: Agriculture, trade, commerce, and cattle rearing.
  • Sudras: Unskilled labor, working under the direction of the other groups.
• Qualities of varnas:
  • Brahmins: Self-restraint, austerity, purity, serenity, forgiveness, simplicity, wisdom, philosophic insight.
  • Kshatriyas: Courage, strength, firmness, skillfulness, charitableness, administrative ability.
  • Vaishyas: Hard work, intelligence, quick decision-making.
  • Sudras: Lack abilities and aptitudes, work under others.
• Duties of varnas:
  • Brahmins: Offer prayers, perform ceremonies, and teach.
  • Kshatriyas: Protect people, govern, punish, and contribute to nation-building.
  • Vaishyas: Engage in agriculture, procure and sell commodities, rear cattle, and help the poor.
  • Sudras: Perform tasks assigned by others, not permitted to read Vedas or observe Vedic rites.
• Membership of varna:
  • Determined by qualifications, not birth.
  • A Sudra could become a Brahmin by merit, and vice versa.
  • Guna (natural and acquired qualities) and karma (calling/profession) determine the varna.
• Some scholars argue the varna system was rigid like the modern caste system, though exceptions like Vasistha (born of a prostitute), Vyasa (from a fisherwoman), and Parasara (from a low-born girl) are mentioned as rare cases.

Castes

• Castes refer to the division of people based on birth, giving certain groups privileges and denying others similar rights.
• Ethos of each caste: Own way of life, ideas of right and wrong, customs, and manners.
• The motive behind the caste system was racial and ethnic.
• Racial invasions in India: Dravidians, Mongols, Mediterraneans, followed by Persians, Greeks, and Scythians.
• Unlike other countries (e.g., Britain, America) that addressed racial issues by extermination, conversion, or denying human rights, India followed an adjustment process, allowing each racial group to develop its own life pattern.
• Initially, migrant racial groups were not rigid about social, commensal, marital relations, and beliefs, but over time, they became rigid.
• Gradually, the number of groups increased, changing their callings and adopting new names, evolving into castes(jatis).
• Social and economic restrictions were imposed by each caste to preserve its way of life, leading to the creation of sub-castes.
• By the Gupta period (300 A.D. to 500 A.D.), the caste system became rigid, and the ascendancy of Brahmins was established.
• The rigidity, Brahmins’ superiority, and restrictions on lower castes were criticized by Buddha and later by Bhaktas during the Bhakti movement.
• The caste system remained rigid until the British colonial period, which brought industrialization, urbanization, education, and social ideologies from Ramakrishna, Vivekananda, Gandhi, etc., which attacked the system.
• Today, the caste system has lost much of its power but has not disappeared.
• Caste politics plays a crucial role today, with scheduled castes and backward castes enjoying privileges like reservations in jobs, education, scholarships, and age concessions.
• New vested interests have emerged, making it likely that the caste system will continue to exist in society.

INDIAN SOCIETY THROUGH THE AGES

Impact of Cultural Renaissance and Buddhism

• Vedic philosophy of early Hinduism was influenced by Buddhism and Jainism, both of which had deep roots in Hindu tradition.
• Jainism was supported by the urban-mercantile community, while Buddhism had princely patronage.
• Both Buddhism and Jainism emphasized continuity (predestination, rebirth, and transmigration) and criticized hierarchy (belief in varna and caste system).
• Both rejected rituals of sacrifice in temples and promoted non-violence.
• Buddhism had open membership for all castes and both sexes.
• Buddhism focused on soul liberation through nirvana (salvation), while Jainism focused on liberation through self-restraint and moral virtues.
• Buddhism and Jainism are atheistic, whereas Hinduism is based on theistic beliefs.
• Both Buddhism and Jainism protested against key characteristics of Hinduism, such as rigid formalism, tyrannical ritualism, a hierarchical value system, the supremacy of Brahmins, and religious orthodoxy.
• Shankaracharya (9th century), Ramanujacharya (1017-1137 A.D.), and Madhavacharya (14th century) propagated monotheism and established monasteries across India.
• Ramanuja founded the Vaishnava sect, attracting followers from Jains, Shaivites, and low castes.
• The Lingayat sect in South India converted many non-Brahmins to exclusive worship of Shiva.
• Devotional schools emerged between the 15th and 16th centuries, promoting new values in Hinduism.
• Saints like Kabir (1440-1518), Guru Nanak (1469-1538), Ramananda (14th-15th centuries), Chaitanya (1485-1535), Mira (1504-1550), Tulsidas (1532-1623), Tukaram, and Ramdas emphasized an equalitarian and non-hierarchical value system in Hinduism.
• These saints worked towards the liberalization of Hinduism and its synthesis with Islam.

Impact of Islam

• Islam influenced Hindu ideals in the medieval period, with the impact becoming more prominent from the 15th century onwards.
• Islam is monotheistic and non-hierarchical, believing in equality, while Hinduism links holism with hierarchy.
• Singh (1973) discusses the impact of Islam on Hindu traditions in three stages:
  • Islamic rule (1206-1818)
  • British rule (18th-20th centuries)
  • Indian freedom movement (1930s onwards)
• During the Islamic rule, some Muslim rulers adopted policies of destroying Hindu temples, spreading Islam(Islamisation), and proselytisation (converting Hindus to Muslims).
• This period saw conflict between Hinduism and Islam, but also led to cultural synthesis and co-existence between Hindus and Muslims.
• Sufism influenced Hindus, emphasizing ascetic personal morality, mystical self-denial, non-ritualism, and abstract monotheism.
• Some Muslim rulers and scholars attempted to reconcile Hinduism with Islam:
  • Akbar introduced Din-e-Illah (a mix of Islam, Hinduism, Jainism, and Zoroastrianism).
  • Dara Singh advocated for a synthesis of Upanishadic monotheism and Islam.
  • Amir Khusro interpreted Hindu traditions to the Muslim world.
  • Muslim poets and writers wrote in Hindi in the 16th-17th centuries.
• The Islamic elite held significant administrative, judicial, and political power and aimed to perpetuate Islam.
• During British rule, the Muslim elite lost power, and Islam became more orthodox and revivalist in the 18th century.
• Islamic liberal tendencies diminished, and the Hindu tradition became more reactive rather than adaptive.
• In the 19th century, liberal and orthodox Islamic traditions polarized, leading to the creation of Pakistan as a separate Islamic nation.
• Two types of reform movements in Hinduism during British rule:
  1. Reforms focused on changing cultural practices based on Vedic tradition.
  2. Reforms postulating synthesis of new cultural norms with traditional values.
• Reformers:
  • First category: Swami Dayananda Saraswati, Ramakrishna, Vivekananda, and Gandhi.
  • Second category: Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Jawaharlal Nehru.
• Swami Dayananda, Vivekananda, and Gandhi accepted varna system, hierarchy, and karma-yoga but called for rejecting ritualistic disabilities of caste.
• Swami Dayananda rejected non-Hindu cultural values, while Vivekananda and Gandhi did not emphasize such rejection.
• Hinduism and Hindu beliefs have undergone significant changes and religio-cultural transformation over time in Indian culture.

Impact of the West and Modernisation

• The impact of the West on India can be discussed in five phases:

  1. Hostile contact with the conquest of Alexander and others.
  2. Peaceful interchange through trade and commerce over centuries.
  3. East India Company establishes rule in the early 18th century.
  4. Industrial revolution in the 19th century, spreading Western culture.
  5. Post-independence (1947) phase after India’s political independence.

• The impact of Western culture on Indian society includes:

  1. Introduction of Western institutions like banking, public administration, military organization, modern medicine, law, etc.
  2. Western education broadened the outlook, introducing values like rationality, secularism, individualism, equality, and justice.
  3. Scientific innovations raised aspirations for material welfare and improving the standard of living.
  4. Emergence of reform movements led to the rejection of traditional beliefs and practices, and adoption of new customs and social practices.
  5. Modernization of technology, agriculture, entrepreneurship, and industry, leading to economic well-being.
  6. Restructuring of political values, acceptance of democracy, and dissolution of monarchic forms of government. Changes in marriage, family, and caste systems.
  7. Introduction of modern communication means like railways, postal services, air and sea travel, press, radio, and television.
  8. Rise in nationalism.
  9. Emergence of a middle class shifting the dominant societal values.

• Alatas (1972) describes four types of changes due to Western impact:

  1. Eliminative changes: Disappearance of cultural traits, behaviors, and institutions. Example: change in weaponsused in warfare, abolition of Sati.
  2. Additive changes: Adoption of new culture traits, institutions, and beliefs. Examples: divorce in Hindu society, property rights for daughters, panchayat election system.
  3. Supportive changes: Strengthening existing values, beliefs, or behaviors. Example: the Hundi system in loan transactions.
  4. Synthetic changes: Creation of new forms from existing and adopted elements. Examples: nuclear familystructure with joint family responsibilities, dowry system with restrictions, involvement of children in marriage decisions.
• This classification is analytical, and changes often overlap. Example: the introduction of the textile industry supported cloth production but eliminated traditional handloom weaving.
• Prison reforms like opening wall-less prisons contain elements of multiple types of changes, as do changes in education, banking, family, and marriage systems.
• Post-contact with the West, India faces questions about its progress, welfare, and whether the impact has been positive or not.
• Some intellectuals believe that after WWII, India faced issues like economic backwardness, poverty, unemployment, religion’s predominance, caste conflicts, communal disharmony, capital shortage, lack of trained personnel, and issues with mobilizing resources.
• Western impact provided solutions to some problems, but others argue that it didn’t significantly help India, and some new issues emerged. India uses indigenous elements rather than Western models to solve problems.
• Independence played a greater role in India’s modernization, with a rise in industrial development, education, rural development, and population control.
• Positive impact of the West acknowledged in areas like modern medical science, technology, natural catastrophe management, and security methods.
• Despite Western influence, India has retained its traditional institutions, beliefs, and practices to uplift the masses, ensuring Indian culture survives and evolves.
• New Hinduism, called syndicated Hinduism, differs from early Hindu philosophy in scale and scope. It emerged for political purposes rather than purely religious.
• Syndicated Hinduism is a political form of Hinduism and was shaped by conflicts with Muslims and Christians who viewed Hindus as the ‘other’.
• Neo-Hindu movements of the 20th century, especially after independence, have a political edge, contributing to the development of syndicated Hinduism as a sole claimant of India’s indigenous religion.
• The syndicated Hinduism has been promoted primarily to cater to the rural rich and urban middle-class, aligning it with political objectives.
• Key postulates of syndicated Hinduism (as given by Thapar):
  1. Syndicated Hinduism combines Brahmanical texts, Gita, and Vedantic thought with modern reformed religion.
  2. Belief that non-caste religious sects must submit to the dharma of the powerful.
  3. Belief in proselytization due to historical persecution and conversions by foreign invaders like Greeks, Turks, Mughals, and British.
  4. Disapproval of egalitarianism: Hinduism does not support equality in social and economic aspects, unlike Islamor Buddhism.
  5. Rejects the multiplicity of religious manifestations, emphasizing selected beliefs and practices.
  6. Global dispersion of Hindus: The cultural insecurity of Hindus in foreign lands drives support for syndicated Hinduism.
  7. Hindu nationalism: The idea that Hindus, as the majority and heirs of exalted traditions, should dominate and exercise authority, and non-Hindus must prove loyalty.
  8. The concept of ‘positive secularism’ promotes a uniform civil code for all religions, dismissing separate laws for different communities.
• Syndicated Hinduism, though claiming to restore indigenous Hinduism, may ultimately establish its own agenda, raising questions about its effects on India’s secularism and the interests of the people.
• Time will reveal how Hindu nationalism impacts Indian polity and whether it meets people’s aspirations or provokes sociopathological conditions.

FACTORS IN CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN INDIAN SOCIETY

Political Independence and Introduction of Democratic Values

• Factors responsible for continuity and change in Indian society include political independence, industrialisation, urbanisation, education increase, legislative measures, social change in caste system, and social movements (e.g., feminism, globalisation, anti-casteism).
• Political independence allowed individuals to focus on individuality, with new demands for discriminatory privileges, political independence by ethnic groups, and religious groups desiring freedom to teach specific values.
• Political independence led to changes in the social structure, abolishing the feudal system and affecting the system of authority.
• The urban population in India grew from 78 million in 1961 to 217 million in 1991, with decennial growth rates increasing from 26.41% in 1961 to 46.14% in 1981.
• Family, kinship, caste, and marriage systems in urban areas differ significantly from rural areas in both compositionand ideology.
• Urban areas see a preference for nuclear families, with more individuals choosing this family structure compared to rural areas.
• Urban families shift away from joint family norms, with parents (rather than eldest males) making decisions for their children. Urban families also show fewer instances of brothers living together post-parents’ death.
• Desai (1964) argued that the duration of urban residence affects jointness, with older families (living in urban areas for longer periods) showing stronger jointness compared to newer families.
• Louis Wirth (1938) believed cities are not conducive to traditional family life, as family members pursue individual interests in vocational, educational, religious, and recreational fields.
• Changes in kinship relations are significant, with urban areas having less intimate contacts among extended family members compared to rural areas.
• The caste system is less rigid in urban areas, and caste is no longer the primary social identity in cities. However, caste associations still exist in cities but no longer enforce traditional roles like endogamy, purity, or caste disputes.
• The role of urbanisation in social changes has been significant, weakening joint families and strengthening nuclear families.
• Urbanisation provides new occupation opportunities and higher education, which leads to a shift in attitudes, especially among those who deviate from traditional occupations.
• Educated individuals in urban areas are less likely to conform to joint family norms compared to those in rural areas.
• Urban residence provides women with opportunities for gainful employment, leading them to seek more freedom from their husband’s family and contributing to changes in the family structure.

Industrialisation

• Industrialisation began in India in the late 19th century and early 20th century, leading to the growth of citiesaround new industries.
• Before industrialisation, India had an agrarian, non-monetised economy, where the domestic unit was also the unit of economic exchange.
• There was a non-differentiation of occupations between father and son and between brothers.
• Value system prior to industrialisation emphasized the authority of elders and the sanctity of tradition, in contrast to the rationality of modern life.
• Industrialisation resulted in:
  • Specialisation in work and occupational mobility.
  • Monetisation of the economy and breakdown of the link between kinship and occupational structures.
  • Migration from rural to urban areas, spread of education, and a centralised political structure.
  • Secularisation of beliefs in the cultural field.
• Family organisation was affected by industrialisation in three main ways:
  1. The family transformed from a unit of production to a unit of consumption.
  2. Factory employment led to the financial independence of young adults, weakening the authority of the head of the household.
  3. Children ceased to be economic assets and became liabilities due to higher educational requirements and the increasing cost of accommodation and child care in cities.
• Industrialisation separated work and home, creating a shift in family dynamics.
• Some sociologists challenge the idea that industrialisation leads to nuclear families:
  • Studies by M.S.A. Rao, M.S. Gore, and Milton Singer show that joint families are preferred in business communities, and many nuclear families maintain strong kin ties.
  • Western scholars also argue that nuclear families existed before industrialisation, but the role of kin in these families is not as compulsory as in Indian families.
• Migration and cultural interactions due to industrialisation led to bilingualism, with the Census of 1991 estimating it at 15%, though surveys show a higher figure of 60%.
• Cultural commonality and shared cultural traits (rituals, skills, and division of labor) are more prevalent across regions and communities.
• Many communities have moved away from traditional occupations and are more aware of developmental programsinitiated by the government.
• This awareness and high aspirations have introduced tension and conflict in the social system, manifesting in various aspects of social life.

Increase in Education

• Indian society has focused on expanding the educational system to create a more literate and numerate population.
• Literacy percentage increased from 36% in 1951 to about 60% in 1997, but there are still about 330 million illiterate people.
• Male literacy rate reached 70% and female literacy rate reached 50% by the end of 1997.
• States like Kerala, Mizoram, Goa, and Delhi have a literacy rate beyond 75%, while in 16 states, literacy varies between 50% and 65%.
• Among Scheduled Castes (SCs), literacy increased to 37% and among Scheduled Tribes (STs) to 30% (1991).
• Number of students in schools and colleges increased from 548 million in 1971 to 846 million in 1991.
• Education has brought changes in attitudes, beliefs, values, and ideologies and fostered individualistic feelings.
• Women’s education has led to economic independence, enabling them to demand more voice in family affairs and challenge dominance.
• Desai (1964) and Ross (1961) discussed the reciprocal influence between the educational system and family system:
  • Education promotes individualism and introduces family types contrary to the joint family.
  • Education prepares individuals for occupations that lead to separation from ancestral families.
• Desai’s study found jointness increased and nuclearity decreased with higher education, but his methodology is questioned.
• The method used in Desai’s research is criticized for inaccurately measuring the educational level of families, especially in families with graduate members showing nuclear families.
• Desai’s conclusion that education increases preference for jointness is disputed, with the argument that education increases preference for nuclear families.
• Ross (1961) emphasized that modern occupations require special education, leading parents to sacrifice for their children’s education.
• Poor parents often sacrifice comforts to provide education, leading to disappointment if their children fail, which can cause breakdown in relationships.
• Some children, particularly from poorer families, leave home for better education, and as they grow, they become separated from family ties.
• Educated girls develop new attitudes towards husbands, children, and family, leading to conflict with traditional mother-in-laws and a preference for separate households.
• As education level rises, there is an increase in preference for nuclear families and a decrease in conformity to joint family norms.

Legislative Measures

• Legislative measures have had significant impacts on society, especially in shaping family and social structures.
• Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929 and Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 have prohibited early marriage and set a minimum age of marriage, increasing the period of education and helping couples adjust after marriage.
• Special Marriage Act, 1954 allows freedom of mate selection and marriage across castes and religions without parental consent after a certain age.
• Hindu Widow Remarriage Act, 1856 sanctions widow remarriage, and the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 provides for the freedom to break marriages, altering the dynamics of family relationships.
• Hindu Succession Act, 1956 grants daughters a share in paternal property, affecting the composition and stability of the joint family.
• Laws like the Succession Act, 1956, Hindu Widow Remarriage Act, 1856, Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987, Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961, Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956, and Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986 have contributed to preventing exploitation and violence against women, improving their status in society.
• Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955, Untouchability Act, 1955, and Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 have worked to check the exploitation of the weaker sections of society.
• Other acts like the Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976, Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986, Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993, Equal Remuneration Act, 1976, and Muslim Women (Protection of Right of Divorce) Act, 1986 have provided relief to suffering sectors of society.

Social Movements and Social Awareness

• Different types of movements have created awareness for rights among various groups, including feminism, globalisation, and anti-casteism.

Feminism

• Until the 1950s, women were subjugated and had a secondary role in society.
• Today, women demand equality and opportunities to choose their roles.
• Despite women holding higher status positions, violence against women is still rising.
• The feminist movement advocates for empowerment and gender equality.
• The slogan “the personal is political” is both an ideological expression and a program for social change.

Globalisation

• Globalisation reduces the constraints of geography, leading to increased awareness and interconnectedness across the world.
• Physical distance has lessened in communication and exchange in social, political, and economic matters.
• In the past, mobility was mostly from villages to cities, but now it spans countries.
• Communication now occurs in minutes, compared to weeks or months in the past.
• Economic effects include growth in trade routes, capital flow, and economic independence.
• Political consequences include the development of inter-governmental institutions with global power, leading to a decline in the sovereignty of nation-states.
• Cultural consequences reflect a common global culture, influencing leisure, work, and consumption.
• Examples of cultural globalisation: global financial markets, fast food, and ‘world’ cars.
• Cultural globalisation does not mean cultural differentiation disappears.

Anti-Casteism

• Movements oppose caste exploitation and casteism, advocating for equality and special privileges for oppressed castes.
• These movements have a cultural dimension, challenging caste prejudices and promoting social mobility.
• The structural dimension addresses lack of power in institutions like business, education, and legislation.

Conclusion

• The forces of change in India have both functional and dysfunctional aspects.
• Cultural, social, and political tensions based on caste, ethnicity, and interest groups have existed since independence.
• The cultural dimension of change is visible in the search for new identities by Dalits, religious minorities, and women.
• Media plays a role in exposing inequalities, but this can lead to extremism and social conflict as development progresses.