What Philosophy Is – Political Philosophy

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Book No. – 52 (Political Science)

Book Name – Political Philosophy (Richard G. Stevens)

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What Philosophy Is

Political Philosophy

Chapter – 1

Harshit Sharma

Alumnus (BHU)

Authors who are not frivolous carefully consider the titles of their books and chapters, while even careless authors often reveal their thoughts unintentionally in their titles.
Modern students, focused on computer-assisted data acquisition, may overlook the importance of engaging with book and chapter titles critically.
The title “What Philosophy Is” implies the author believes they know the answer, contrasting with Martin Heidegger’s approach in his lecture “What Is This – Philosophy?” which treated philosophy as a question requiring study and argument.
Heidegger, considered one of the greatest 20th-century philosophers, regarded the nature of philosophy as a profound and open question.
An author claiming to define philosophy definitively might seem as audacious as questioning Darwin, Einstein, or Freud, or denying widely accepted issues like global warming or sexual harassment.
Heidegger’s character is questionable due to his sexual liaison with a student and his support for Nazism, but dismissing his philosophy outright would be premature.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, influential in 21st-century intellectual thought, abandoned five children to a foundling hospital, and Socrates neglected the economic welfare of his sons, raising doubts about their personal credibility.
Alexander Hamilton reminds us that bad people can still be right, and wise individuals can err on significant societal questions.
While an author’s character should not be ignored, judgments must not be hasty, as even flawed individuals may offer valuable insights.
The impracticality of Socrates’ political advice, Rousseau’s contradictions in Émile, and Heidegger’s philosophy of being must all be critically examined.
Heidegger aimed to redefine the understanding of Being, challenging the entire history of philosophy’s reliance on Nature.
The analogy of the case method in U.S. law schools illustrates how changing the structure of study (e.g., starting with the Constitution’s Preamble rather than judicial review) can reshape understanding, much like Heidegger’s project in philosophy.
Starting Constitutional law studies with judicial review cases (like Marbury v. Madison) has influenced the perception of a “living constitution”, although this contradicts the text of Article III of the U.S. Constitution.
Herbert Storing suggested teaching Constitutional law by following the Constitution’s structure, but his approach was challenging and unconventional.
Storing’s project reflects the difficulty of questioning and reshaping established thought, akin to Heidegger’s attempt to find Plato, Aristotle, and their successors mistaken about the nature of Being.
Heidegger’s effort to reopen the question of “What is Being?” and consequently “What Is Philosophy?” represents the ultimate challenge and essence of philosophy.
Storing’s and Heidegger’s projects are analogous in some ways but not necessarily equally sound.
Storing’s project is difficult but manageable and salutary, while Heidegger’s project may be fundamentally wrongheaded.
A key philosophical choice: Is Being determinable, or is there an inherent indeterminacy to what is? Does Beingchange over time?
If philosophy focuses on Being, it may be that philosophy is dead if it’s based on indeterminacy and fluid questioning.
Philosophy’s primary task involves nature, Being, and an inquiry into the nature of philosophy.
The word philosophy comes from Greek, meaning love or pursuit of wisdom (philos = love, sophia = wisdom).
Philosophy implies modesty, acknowledging that one doesn’t possess wisdom, and involves a pursuit of higher wisdom.
Practical wisdom (prudence) is attainable, where individuals can manage their life and affairs.
Higher wisdom, however, is subject to question, and it’s important to understand what that wisdom would be.
Socrates famously denied he was wise, despite being regarded as the wisest.
The term “Sophist” was originally neutral but later became a term of disparagement, indicating a wise person, though not in a positive sense.
Socrates argued that his wisdom lay in knowing that he knew nothing, unlike others who were ignorant of their ignorance.
Socrates’ trial resulted in his death penalty, but his critique of others’ supposed wisdom left a lasting impact.
Philosophy began as a critique of Greek culture, with figures like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle questioning the poets who shaped Greek understanding of virtue, gods, and justice.
Philosophy involves assertions about nature and being, followed by arguments supporting those assertions.
Cautious skepticism in philosophy questions radical skepticism—absolute certainty about starting points may lead to infinite regression.
The study of epistemology (the study of knowing) has become central in modern philosophy, contrasting with the ancient focus on ontology (the study of being).
Philosophy is a free pursuit of the truth about being, nature, and the natures of things.
Free inquiry is free from external restraints and internal encumbrances.
External restraints include lack of wealth, political tyranny, and cultural suppression.
Philosophical inquiry requires some level of wealth and freedom from daily toil; Socrates, though disdainful of wealth, illustrates that inquiry can still occur under political restraint.
Tyranny (both political and traditional) inhibits inquiry by limiting access to resources, reading materials, and the ability to freely discuss ideas.
Despite modern freedom, the Enlightenment’s impact on inquiry and speech does not guarantee that philosophy thrives under all conditions.
Suppressing certain ideas may have a mixed blessing, and historically, great works were produced under illiberal conditions.
Internal encumbrances to philosophy include lack of mental acuity and intelligence, which are fatal to philosophical inquiry.
The idea that all humans are of equal intelligence is flawed and stems from thinkers like Thomas Hobbes.
Hobbes’ argument on equality of wisdom, using the notion that contentment shows equal distribution, is often viewed as a comic or ironic idea.
External forces can affect natural endowments, but it’s important to acknowledge this without dismissing their influence altogether.
Analogy helps in understanding such concepts, as seen in Michelangelo’s statue of David, which conveys beautythrough its sculptural form.
Beauty can be a double-edged sword: it can attract admiration but also lead to its own diminishment or loss.
External admiration can alter a person’s development, as a bright student may become shallow or intellectually lazy if too much attention is given to them.
Overindulgence in pleasures or distractions can hinder serious intellectual or creative work, as illustrated by a doctoral student who smokes excessively.
Natural intelligence requires careful development to avoid self-destruction or distraction.
Philosophy calls for the best intellect, not just good intellect, and demands rigorous, radical inquiry.
Radical comes from the Latin radix meaning root, representing inquiry that seeks the deepest truth of things.
Philosophical inquiry aims to get to the root of matters, as shown in the Declaration of Independence, which asserts that certain truths are self-evident.
Self-evident truths are not obvious, but necessary and require declaration due to their suppression by flawed political conditions.
The American Founding built on Enlightenment principles like equality, influenced by philosophers like Hobbesand Locke.
Philosophy is distinct from other fields, especially in its focus on reason, whereas other fields like science or religionmay focus on different approaches to truth.
Behavioralism once dominated social sciences, confusing philosophy with religion or political theory, dismissing philosophy as unnecessary.
Philosophy is the free and radical employment of unassisted human reason in pursuit of truth about being, nature, and things.
The work of a philosopher is tough, pursued by a tiny minority of individuals with superior endowments who avoid distractions and internal weaknesses.
Philosophic inquiry has often been presented in poetic forms, as shown in Plato’s dialogues and Shakespeare’s works, although not all poetry is philosophy.
Edgar Guest, a popular poet, exemplifies work that is pleasant but lacks the philosophical depth of figures like Shakespeare.
Ann Landers and Abigail Van Buren wrote advice columns on prosaic matters, which are wholesome moralizing, but not philosophy.
Moralizing is not the same as philosophy; philosophers touch on moral questions, but their aim is the search for truthand answers, not moral improvement.
In Aristotle’s view, the task of statesmen is to address moral questions.
Ann Landers, Abigail Van Buren, and Edgar Guest are not philosophers, though Shakespeare might be considered one.
Philosophers may use poetic mode, but they are not just poets or moralizers.
The question arises whether historical figures are closer to Guest and Landers or Shakespeare in terms of the attention they deserve.
Plato was not a moralist; he was a philosopher.
Philosophy can only seek being where being might be found; there is no philosophy of baseball, as there is no bottom truth to it.
Baseball is a game, an important one financially, but there is no inherent truth to be sought about the game.
The idea that there is a “right” way to play baseball confuses the customary with the natural.
The good and the true are not defined by popular opinion or time; they are pursued through philosophy.
The term “philosophy of life” is often used vacuously, such as in celebrity interviews, where it may sound profound but is ultimately empty.
Philosophy must be about something; there can be no philosophy of nothing.
Physics and politics are the two main subject matters of philosophy.
The medieval university had two core faculties: natural philosophy and moral and political philosophy.
Theology, as part of philosophy, concerns the study of the gods and falls under physics as a theoretical science.
Socrates was charged with being a physicist and questioned the official answers regarding the gods, which was viewed as impious and seditious.
Kant divided philosophy into three branches: physics, ethics, and logic, but logic is better seen as a propaedeutic to philosophy, not a main branch.
According to Aristotle, philosophy is divided into practical (ethics and politics) and theoretical (physics), with logicas a tool for all sciences.
The pursuit of truth in philosophy is free and radical, using unassisted human reason to investigate physics and politics.
Argument is essential in philosophy, derived from the Latin arguo, meaning to put in clear light.
Dialectic (Plato) and demonstrative (Aristotle) methods are used in argumentation, with logic being present in both approaches.
Logos (Greek for speech, reason, or reasoned speech) is the foundation of logic in philosophy; unreasoned speech is considered babble.