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Book No. – 52 (History)
Book Name – Modern World History (Norman Lowe)
What’s Inside the Chapter? (After Subscription)
1. ISSUES COMMON TO THE AFRICAN STATES
2. GHANA
3. NIGERIA
4. TANZANIA
5. THE CONGO/ZAIRE
6. ANGOLA
7. BURUNDI AND RWANDA
7.1. Burundi
7.2. Rwanda
8. APARTHEID AND BLACK MAJORITY RULE IN SOUTH AFRICA
8.1. The formation of the Union of South Africa
8.2. Dr Malan introduces apartheid
8.3. Apartheid developed further
8.4. Opposition to apartheid
8.5. The end of apartheid
8.6. Mandela and Mbeki
9. ETHIOPIA
10. LIBERIA
11. SIERRA LEONE
12. ZIMBABWE
12.1. An impressive beginning, 1980-90
12.2. The hero’s image begins to tarnish
12.3. Opposition increases
12.4. Zimbabwe in crisis
13. SOMALIA
14. THE SUDAN
15. AFRICA IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY
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LANGUAGE
Africa Since Independence
Chapter – 27
Table of Contents
ISSUES COMMON TO THE AFRICAN STATES
- Tribal differences: African states had diverse tribes united under colonial rule. Once Europeans withdrew, loyalty to tribes often surpassed loyalty to new nations, leading to civil wars in countries like Nigeria, Congo (Zaire), Burundi, and Rwanda.
- Economic underdevelopment: Many African states were economically underdeveloped, with little industry. Colonial powers had kept them dependent on exporting raw materials to Europe/USA, leaving them reliant on one or two commodities. Nigeria, for example, depended heavily on oil exports (80% of annual income).
- The population growth rate exceeded 2% annually, leading to a shortage of capital and skills. Foreign loans created heavy debt, and focus on exports led to food scarcity for local consumption.
- This dependence on the West (Europe and the USA) allowed those countries to exert control, creating a system of neo-colonialism.
- During the Cold War, some African states faced military intervention from countries fearing Soviet influence, like Angola, which was invaded by South Africa and Zaire due to its Marxist-style government.
- Political problems: African politicians lacked experience in managing parliamentary democracy systems left by Europeans. Government corruption was common. Many leaders influenced by Marxist ideas set up one-party states for stability, such as in Kenya and Tanzania.
- However, in states where opposition was suppressed, violence became a solution, with military coups becoming common. For example, Ghana’s President Nkrumah was removed by the army in 1966 after failed assassination attempts.
- In some places like Malawi, the one-party system flourished, undermining freedom and democracy.
- Economic and natural disasters: In the 1980s, Africa faced a combination of economic downturn and natural disasters. The world recession led to decreased demand for African exports like oil, copper, and cobalt. A severe drought (1982–1985) caused crop failures, livestock deaths, famine, and starvation.
- Despite a record harvest in 1986, Africa was in the midst of a debt crisis and forced by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to implement austerity measures for loans. The Economic Structural Adjustment Program (ESAP) often led to currency devaluation, reduced food price subsidies, and increased food prices while unemployment rose and wages fell.
- Governments had to cut spending on education, health, and social services.
GHANA
- Kwame Nkrumah ruled Ghana from 1957 until his overthrow in 1966 by the army.
- Nkrumah’s initial achievements were notable; he was a socialist and aimed to improve living standards through industrialization and efficient organization.
- The production of cocoa (Ghana’s main export) doubled, and sectors like forestry, fishing, and cattle-breedingexpanded.
- Ghana’s gold and bauxite deposits were more effectively exploited, and a dam on the River Volta was constructed, providing hydro-electric power and irrigation.
- Village projects funded by the government allowed locals to build roads and schools.
- Nkrumah gained international prestige by supporting the pan-African movement, aiming for an African federation. He formed an economic union with Guinea and Mali, but it was largely ineffective.
- He supported the Organization of African Unity (OAU) and played a responsible role in world affairs, maintaining relations with the Commonwealth and hosting Queen Elizabeth II in 1961.
- Nkrumah built ties with the USSR, East Germany, and China.
- Nkrumah was overthrown because he introduced industrialization too quickly and took on vast amounts of foreign debt, relying on increased exports to balance the budget. A fall in the price of cocoa led to a balance-of-payments deficit.
- The smelting plant was a failure as the American corporation insisted on buying bauxite from abroad.
- His administration was criticized for wasting money on unnecessary projects like a motorway from Accra to Tema.
- Nkrumah abandoned parliamentary government for a one-party state and personal dictatorship, justifying it by claiming opposition parties were unconstructive and based on tribal differences.
- From 1959, opponents could be deported or imprisoned without trial.
- In 1964, all parties except Nkrumah’s were banned, and within his party, criticism was prohibited. He built an image as the “father of the nation,” with slogans like “Nkrumah is our Messiah.”
- The army overthrew him in 1966, supported by the CIA due to Nkrumah’s ties to communist states.
- The military promised a return to democracy and introduced a new constitution in 1969, which led to the election of Dr. Kofi Busia as prime minister in October 1969.
- Dr. Kofi Busia, an economist, struggled to maintain political stability. Ghana faced high unemployment, rising prices, and large debts. He tried to manage payments but was limited by a fall in cocoa prices.
- In 1971, imports were limited, and the currency was devalued by nearly 50%.
- Tribal squabbles resurfaced under democracy, and in 1972, while Busia was in London, the army replaced him with the National Redemption Council, led by Colonel Ignatius Acheampong.
- Acheampong was also overthrown by General Fred Akuffo for alleged corruption.
- In June 1979, Jerry J. Rawlings, a charismatic air-force officer, led a group of junior officers to seize power, claiming that corrupt politicians and soldiers needed to be removed before returning to democracy.
- Rawlings executed Acheampong and Akuffo after secret trials. Elections in July 1979 led to the return of civilian rulewith Dr. Hilla Limann as president.
- Limann failed to stop economic decline, and in December 1981, Rawlings removed him in a military coup, becoming Chairman of the Provisional National Defence Council (PNDC).
- Rawlings was different from other military leaders, stating that the army only sought to be part of the decision-making process.
- Despite a drought in 1983, rainfall in 1984 brought a good harvest. Rawlings turned to the IMF, agreeing to austerity measures. The economy showed improvement, with a 7% increase in production and inflation reduced to 40% by 1985.
- By March 1987, Ghana was celebrating 30 years of independence and experiencing economic recovery.
- Rawlings’ National Democratic Congress (NDC) began a successful campaign to unite Ghana’s population.
- In the early 1990s, Ghana had one of the highest economic growth rates in Africa, but representative democracy was still lacking. Rawlings called for a new constitution in 1991 and promised democratic elections in 1992.
- Rawlings was elected president in 1992 with over 58% of the vote, re-elected in 1996, but could not run again in 2000 due to constitutional limits.
- John Kufuor of the New Patriotic Party (NPP) won the 2000 elections, likely due to economic problems and Rawlings’ absence as a candidate.
- Kufuor focused on economic diversification, modernizing agriculture, and encouraging private involvement. His government was seen as successful, and social conditions and the national health system improved.
- The Ghana School Feeding Program was launched in 2005, providing hot meals for schoolchildren in poorer areas.
- Ghana was considered one of the most stable, prosperous, and successful democracies in Africa.
- Kufuor’s policies received approval from Western countries, and the Millennium Challenge Account awarded Ghana a $500 million grant for economic development.
- However, Kufuor faced criticism for underfunded projects and in the 2008 elections, J. E. A. Mills of the NDC narrowly won the presidency.