Inter-State Relations of Sultanate

• The Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) consisted of several dynasties: Mamluk (Slave), Khilji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, and Lodi, and during its rule, inter-state relations evolved significantly due to political ambitions, regional assertions, and military expeditions.

• The Sultanate rulers faced constant conflicts with regional Hindu kingdoms, as well as with other Islamic principalities that either refused to accept Delhi’s suzerainty or broke away from it.

• Fragmentation of political authority was a hallmark of this period, especially due to the vast geographical expanseand lack of effective administrative control in remote provinces.

• Mamluk Dynasty (1206–1290) rulers like Iltutmish focused on consolidating power in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab and subjugating rebellious governors and independent Rajput states like Ranthanbore, Gwalior, and Kalpi.

• Iltutmish diplomatically refused asylum to the Abbasid Caliph’s rivals, thereby maintaining cordial relations with the Caliphate, which in turn recognized Iltutmish as Sultan of Hind.

• Balban (1266–1287) suppressed the autonomy of provincial governors, especially in Bengal, where frequent revolts occurred under semi-independent governors.

• Mongol invasions during Balban’s reign affected foreign relations; he maintained strict military defenses along the northwest frontier, especially in the Punjab region, to prevent alliances between Mongols and rebellious Indian chiefs.

• The Khilji Dynasty (1290–1320), especially under Alauddin Khilji, saw aggressive expansionism with a focus on inter-state warfare to subdue Rajputana, Deccan kingdoms, and regional Muslim rulers.

• Alauddin Khilji waged wars against Ranthambore (1301), Chittor (1303), and Malwa, establishing direct control or forcing tributary status on defeated kingdoms.

• His Deccan campaigns under Malik Kafur (1308–1311) targeted Yadavas of Devagiri, Kakatiyas of Warangal, Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra, and Pandyas of Madurai, initiating inter-regional tribute-based relations.

• These Deccan expeditions led to non-annexationist relations, where local rulers retained autonomy but paid tributeto Delhi, marking a form of indirect rule or vassalage.

• Khilji’s success against independent Muslim states in Gujarat and Malwa reflected the Delhi Sultanate’s superiority claim over other Islamic polities in India.

• The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1414), particularly under Muhammad bin Tughlaq, attempted to integrate distant regions into a centralized empire, shifting the capital to Daulatabad to ensure closer control over the Deccan.

• Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s relations with regional rulers were marked by frequent revolts in Bengal, Deccan, and Sindh, where governors declared independence or refused to remit revenue.

• His attempt to invade Kumaon and Kangra hills in the north and China through the Himalayas (a failed diplomatic-military mission) reflected an attempt to expand diplomatic-military reach beyond India.

• His policy of appointing non-Turkish and non-Muslim officials (e.g., Hindu nobles) led to uneasy relations with orthodox nobles, creating internal political instability.

• Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388) avoided distant expeditions, instead emphasizing conciliation and diplomacy, especially toward Rajput rulers, and preferred tributary alliances over conquest.

• Firoz Shah maintained peaceful relations with Jalaluddin of Bengal, who had declared independence; he recognized Bengal’s de facto independence in return for nominal allegiance.

• He also made diplomatic overtures to the Mongol chieftains in Transoxiana, but these failed to produce long-lasting alliances or support.

• By the late Tughlaq period, the disintegration of central authority resulted in the emergence of independent regional Sultanates such as Bengal, Jaunpur, Malwa, Gujarat, and Bahmani kingdoms.

• The rise of the Bahmani Sultanate (1347) and the Vijayanagara Empire (1336) in the south created a triangular political scenario involving Delhi, Bahmani, and Vijayanagara with intense inter-state rivalries, especially for control over Tungabhadra doab.

• The Bahmani-Vijayanagara rivalry was one of the longest and fiercest inter-state conflicts, continuing even beyond the Sultanate period, with frequent battles, diplomatic marriages, and shifting alliances.

• The Sayyid Dynasty (1414–1451), being weak, acted as nominal rulers, with real power lying in the hands of provincial governors who exercised autonomy, such as in Punjab, Bengal, and Jaunpur.

• Bahlul Lodi, founder of the Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526), initially established himself as Governor of Sirhind, gradually capturing Delhi, and attempted to reassert authority over Jaunpur and central India.

• The Lodis faced opposition from Malwa, Gujarat, and Rajput states, especially Mewar under Rana Sanga, who emerged as a powerful rival and formed anti-Lodi alliances with other regional chiefs.

• Sikandar Lodi waged multiple expeditions to Bihar, Bengal, and Bundelkhand, but most often relied on political settlements and appointments of loyal governors.

• The Lodi Dynasty’s collapse was precipitated by Babur’s invasion (1526), who took advantage of disunity among regional rulers, including the refusal of Rana Sanga, Bengal, and Bahmani successors to support Ibrahim Lodi.

• Throughout the Sultanate period, inter-state diplomacy involved tools such as marriages, tribute payments, governor appointments, military threats, and religious legitimacy through recognition by the Caliphate.

• Coins, inscriptions, and diplomatic missions show that Sultans sought symbolic dominance over the Islamic and non-Islamic polities in India, asserting themselves as universal rulers (sultan-i-hind).

• Inter-state relations during this era were rarely based on permanent alliances and were dominated by opportunism, territorial ambition, and lack of unified opposition to external threats like the Mongols or Timur.

• The invasion of Timur (1398) exposed the failure of interstate cooperation, as no confederation was formed among Indian rulers to resist the plunder, leading to widespread devastation of Delhi and north India.

• Regional identities such as Rajputana, Bengal, Deccan, and Punjab increasingly solidified, with local rulers asserting cultural-political autonomy even while maintaining nominal allegiance to the Delhi Sultanate.

• By the end of the Sultanate period, India’s political landscape had shifted to a multi-polar system with several independent kingdoms, laying the groundwork for Mughal diplomacy and warfare in the 16th century.

Akbar’s Rajput Policy

Introduction

• Babur and Humayun had strained relations with the Rajputs, but Akbar recognized their valiant and courageous nature.
• Akbar decided that Rajputs could not be easily defeated by warfare and focused on winning them over.
• He entered into matrimonial alliances with the Rajputs and gave them high positions in the Mughal service.
• Rajputs were treated at par with Mughal nobility and granted freedom of worship and conscience.
• Rajput rulers who allied with Akbar were allowed to remain in charge of their kingdoms.
• Where conciliation failed, Akbar resorted to warfare, balancing carrot and stick to win over the Rajputs.
• The Rajputs became an integral part of the Mughal empire.
• Before Muslim rule, Rajputs had been the dominant rulers of India and continued to resist Muslim dominance, aspiring to establish a Hindu empire.
• Babur, Akbar’s great-grandfather, waged a bloody war against the Rajputs to establish his rule in India.
• Despite the Muslim rule lasting over 300 years, the Rajputs’ spirit of independence remained strong.
• Babur and Humayun were unable to adopt a specific policy towards the Rajputs due to time constraints and instability.
• Akbar, being a farsighted and great politician, focused on winning over the Rajputs, recognizing their importance for establishing a permanent empire in India.
• Akbar’s success lay not only in military power but in his tolerant policies.
• Unlike previous rulers, Akbar treated Hindus and Muslims equally, adopting a policy of peace and conciliation.
• Akbar refused to see Hindus as inferior due to their idol worship.
• Although he fought battles against the Rajputs, he established cordial relations with those who surrendered or accepted Mughal suzerainty.
• Akbar befriended the vanquished Rajput rulers, strengthening his empire.

Causes of Liberal Rajput Policy

• Akbar’s liberal Rajput policy was driven by farsighted political principles, a desire for a stable Mughal empire, and human virtues.
• The Rajputs were key political and military leaders of the Hindus and held an important position in history.
• Akbar realized that no ruler could establish permanent rule over India or reign peacefully without the support of the Rajputs.
• Previous rulers, like Balban, Alauddin Khalji, and Muhammad Bin Tughlug, failed to establish a lasting empire due to neglecting Rajput cooperation.
• Akbar understood the Rajput character, recognizing them as honest, skilled in swordsmanship, and honorable, with a high standard of morality.
• Rajputs preferred death over dishonor, making them difficult to defeat through power or fear of death.
• Akbar believed that no foreign ruler could feel safe after ruining relations with the Rajputs and chose to befriend them rather than make them enemies.
• Akbar wanted to rely on the Indian people instead of foreign soldiers from Central Asia, who lacked loyalty to the Mughal empire.
• The Afghan revolts and challenges from Mirzas during Akbar’s reign encouraged him to create a parallel group to counter his rivals.
• As an imperialist, Akbar knew that Rajputs had to either be defeated completely or made allies, and continuous conflict wouldn’t serve his purpose.
• The Mughal capitals, Delhi and Agra, were too close to Rajputana, and powerful Rajput rulers near Delhi made it difficult for Akbar to rule peacefully.
• Instead of continuing conflict, Akbar adopted a policy of friendship and cooperation with the Rajputs.

Chief aims of the Rajput Policy of Akbar

• Every effort should be made to establish cordial relations with the Rajputs.
• Rajput kings who accepted the supremacy of the Mughal empire should be honored and appointed to high posts in the empire to ensure their obedience.
• Rajput kings who resisted the Mughals should be brought to subordination using military power, but if they accepted supremacy, they should be pardoned and honored.
• Rajput kings who remained enemies of the Mughal empire should be crushed mercilessly.
• The Mughal authorities should not interfere in the customs, social traditions, and rituals of the Rajputs and should respect their pride and prestige.
• The Mughal Emperor should behave in a way that makes the Rajputs view him as a well-wisher and guardian, including establishing matrimonial alliances with Rajput rulers.
• The Emperor sought to curb the power of rival Muslim nobles with the help of the Rajputs.

Implementation of Rajput Policy and its consequences

• Akbar adopted a political and farsighted policy towards the Rajputs, expanding his empire significantly.
• He made the Rajputs partners in the establishment of a national policy, leading to marriages with Rajput rulers from Ajmer, Bikaner, and Jaisalmer.
• Rajput rulers were given high positions in the Mughal empire, expressing faithfulness towards Akbar.
• Akbar realized that his Rajput commanders were more loyal and trustworthy than Muslim ones, with figures like Raja Bhagwan Das and Raja Man Singh proving their devotion.
• Akbar aimed to provide opportunities to Rajputs similar to Muslim officials, allowing them to rule their territories under Mughal Suzerainty.
• Akbar’s liberal attitude inspired other Rajputs to establish cordial relations with him and they were employed as Mansabdars.
• Significant events like the fall of Marwar (1562), conquest of Ranthambhor (1568), and the surrender of Marwar, Bikaner, and Jaisalmer encouraged other Rajputs to align with Akbar.
• Mewar was the only state that did not submit to Mughal authority under Rana Udai Singh and his successor, Rana Pratap, who fought against the Mughals despite the challenges.
• Akbar was displeased with Rana Udai Singh for providing refuge to enemies like Baz Bahadur and rebel Mirzas.
• After the death of Rana Pratap and the accession of Rana Amar Singh, the Mughals gained control over Mewar during Jahangir’s reign.
• Akbar’s Rajput policy succeeded due to his non-differentiation between Hindu and Muslim subjects, removal of Jaziya, and declaration of Suk Kul, which improved relations with Hindu and Rajput communities.
• Akbar’s faith in Hinduism grew through the influence of his Hindu queens, and he began listening to Hindu saints and philosophers.
• Matrimonial alliances between Hindus and Muslims helped reduce enmity between the two communities.
• Raja Bhagwan Das, Raja Birbal, and Raja Todarmal were Akbar’s most intimate friends.
• His liberal policy helped him maintain law and order and firmly establish his empire.
• Rajput Mansabdars were appointed in distant areas for the empire’s safety, preventing revolts.
• Akbar used the help of loyal Rajputs to fight against those who resisted his rule.
• Akbar’s policy promoted the development of Hindu-Muslim culture, influencing architecture, painting, music, and literature.
• Rajput architecture influenced Akbar’s buildings, blending Hindu and Muslim styles.
• Akbar’s broadminded Rajput policy contributed to the success of the Mughal empire in various fields, particularly in trade and commerce.
• Rajput cooperation strengthened the Mughal empire’s military power.
• Rajput kings were assured of their hereditary claims, benefiting weaker states.
• The freedom of worship and faith was granted to Rajputs.
• Akbar’s liberal Rajput policy was beneficial for the Mughal empire’s success.