Introduction

• The early medieval period (7th to 12th century) was marked by significant economic changes.

• Initially, there was a decline in economic activities, evident from the absence of coins for exchange and the decayed condition of towns in northern India.

• Later, there was a revival of trade activities, marked by the introduction of new gold coins and numerous references to trade goods and towns.

• Two main reasons for this economic revival:

  1. Increased agricultural activities due to land grants in fresh areas, leading to surplus production of goods for exchange.

  2. Arab traders emerging as significant players in international sea trade along the coastal areas of India.

• The Arabs established a foothold in Sind in 712 A.D. and gradually set up settlements along the sea from Arabia to China.

• These Arab settlements became important channels for the sale and purchase of Indian goods, fostering the growth of Indian external trade.

• In South India, the Chola kings maintained close commercial contacts with South-East Asia (Malaya, Indonesia, etc.) and China.

Sources

• The period under discussion is marked by new types of source materials and documents reflecting changing conditions.

• The most important source material for this period is the large number of inscriptions, especially copper plates or tamrapatta.

• Copper plates recorded the transfer of revenue-free landed property by royal orders to recipients.

• The practice of issuing land grants became fully established from the 4th century and expanded across India after 600 A.D..

• Most copper plates record the creation of revenue-free grants of land to Brahmanas or religious institutions.

• Copper plates are invaluable for understanding the rural economy, including the transfer of landed property, rural settlement patterns, crops, irrigation projects, peasants, and agrarian revenue demands.

• Occasionally, the grants also shed light on important merchants and craftsmen, who were often witnesses to the donation of land.

• Merchants were also involved in grants, contributing cesses on goods to deities or temples on auspicious days.

• These inscriptions also inform about various marketplaces, some of which collected tolls and customs (sulka), highlighting the revenue potential of trade.

• There are also inscriptions recording individual donations by merchants, either for deities or public works.

• Dharmasastras and smritis literature provide information on trade and urban centres.

• Commentaries on texts like Manusmriti and Yajnavalkyasmriti also offer data on the subject.

• Technical treatises like the Amarakosa by Amarasimha, Abhidhanachintamani, Desinamamala by Hemachandra, and Lekhapaddhati also offer relevant data.

• Creative literature, such as the works of Kalidasa, Mrcchakatikam by Sudraka, Dasakumaracharita by Dandin, and various Jain texts, provide impressions of commercial activities.

• Jaina texts like Jagaducharita and Vastupalamahatmyam are biographies of premier merchants in early medieval Gujarat.

• Non-indigenous sources are crucial for understanding external trade, particularly the Chinese accounts of Fa-hsien, Hsuan Tsang, Itsing, and Chau ju Kua.

• Arabic and Persian texts by authors like Sulaiman, Ibn Khordadbih, al-Masudi, Buzurg ibn Shahriyar, al-Biruni, and al-Idrisi are rich in information on Indian commodities and trade linkages with West Asia.

• Syrian Christian monk Cosmas Indicopleustes and Marco Polo’s descriptions of India are also significant.

• Medieval Jewish traders’ letters provide unique insights into long-distance trade between the west coast of India and the Red Sea, particularly from Karnataka and Malabar coasts.

• Coins are also an important source; Gupta gold coins were imitated by smaller powers in the 7th century.

• After 1000 A.D., the issuance of precious coinage revived, but numismatic sources from this period provide less data than earlier coins.

• The lack of systematic exploration and excavation of early medieval settlements has left archaeological data on trade and urbanization quite inadequate.