Introduction

• Language and literature are closely connected, with language being related to thought, feeling, and cultural conditions.

• Literature is a reflection of the culture, and a writer is influenced by contemporary life, which is expressed in their work.

• The Early Medieval Period (750-1206 CE) in India saw a significant growth in regional identity in polity, society, and culture, distinct from both early historical and medieval periods.

• This period witnessed the emergence of numerous regional polities which sometimes grew to imperial proportions, but military victory didn’t always lead to territorial expansion.

• Notable powers like the Palas, Senas, Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, and Cholas were largely rooted in their respective regions.

• The economy shifted from a money economy to a natural economy, with villages becoming units of production and a decline in urban centers and commercial networks.

• The practice of remuneration in land and migration to rural areas were key outcomes, along with an agrarian expansion and the crystallization of jajmani relationships (interdependence between patrons and clients).

• Landed intermediaries became dominant landholders, while the peasantry faced immobility, forced labor, and excessive revenue payments.

• Social stratification intensified, with the rise of numerous castes, including the formation of groups like the Kayasthas and the untouchables associated with manual labor.

• In religion, the proliferation of sects and sub-sects was a dominant trend. Bhakti became central, emphasizing loyalty and devotion, mirroring feudal relationships.

• Bhakti and the worship of God in temples became key ideological elements, especially in South India, with devotional hymns by Vaishnava Alvars and Saiva Nayanars.

• The period saw the emergence of a new agrarian structure, which created a class of landed magnates, contributing to feudal cultural traits.

• Shakti (a religious force) emerged, with local deities like Aranyavasini, Bahughrnadevi, Vatayaksinidevi, Viraja, and Kamakhya playing key roles in shaping regional identity.

• These local deities, though not all major cults, became symbols of the region, promoting integration and regionalization in religion and ideology.

• Language, script, and literature played significant roles in the expression and crystallization of regional identity.

• Art also developed in regional styles, such as Eastern, Odishan, Central Indian, West Indian, Central Deccanese, as well as Pallava and Chola styles.

Literatures in Regional Language

• The period saw the evolution of several regional languages in both North and South India, although in the North, they were in their incipient forms.

• Literary works in these vernaculars were marked by a regional spirit, driven by local demand and the need for a colloquial language to express the thoughts of the common people.

• Vedic Sanskrit evolved into Classical Sanskrit, which led to the emergence of four types of Prakrit spoken in different parts of the country:

  • Shauraseni in the Mathura region,

  • Magadhi in Magadh,

  • Paicachi in North-Western India,

  • Maharashtri in Maharashtra.

• These regional Prakrits eventually degenerated into Apabhramsha.

• Over time, regional languages (vernaculars) evolved from these Apabhramshas, though in a nascent form during this period.

• The two broad divisions of Indian languages are:

  • Indo-Aryan languages, descending from Sanskrit, including Bengali, Marathi, Gujarati, Odia, Assamese, and others.

  • Dravidian languages, including Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam, which trace their evolution to an earlier date.