• The French Revolution was a struggle of both weapons and ideas, with Freedom, Equality, and Fraternity as its eternal contributions.

• Napoleon is considered a product of the French Revolution.

• The French Revolution is not just a historical event but a living legend, having been fought repeatedly, notably in 1830, 1848, and 1870.

• It is one of the most exhaustively described events in history, provoking strong sympathy and resentment unlike any other.

• Among modern revolutions, it is the most remarkable due to its immense and lasting influence on 19th-century European history.

• The Revolution led to the collapse of the old political system in France.

• The period from 1789 to 1815 is summarized by four words: revolution, war, tyranny, and empire.

• The revolution was marked by violence and savagery, followed by wars.

• This chaos allowed the rise of Napoleon’s tyranny—a martial despotism driven by his Caesarean ambitions, resulting in a vast empire.

• The Revolution is generally considered to have begun in 1789.

• Some scholars mark the start as 5 May 1789, when the Estates General convened.

• Others fix the date at 14 July 1789, when the Bastille Fort was conquered.

• Many revolutionary events originated earlier, between 1787 and 1799, caused by long-standing issues.

• The causes of the Revolution were rooted in the ancien regime (the old system).

• Studying the ancient system helps to understand how France reached the brink of Revolution.

Political Set-up

• France had a hereditary absolute monarchy where the King saw himself as God’s representative on earth.

• The absolute monarchy reached its peak during Louis XIV’s reign (1643-1715).

• Louis XVI (1774-1793) famously said, “A thing is legal because I want it,” showing his despotic and headstrong nature.

• There was no representative council or parliament to limit the King’s powers.

• The only institution that could check the King was the Parlement, whose main role was to register the King’s orders as laws.

• Parlement could refuse to register irrational laws and sometimes opposed the King’s orders early in the Revolution.

• The judges of Parlement were mostly nobles who bought their ranks, which later became hereditary.

• Louis XV (1715-1774) was incompetent and more focused on a luxurious life rather than administration; he predicted an insurgence after his death.

• Louis XVI was weak in leadership, indecisive, uninterested in the country’s problems, and under the influence of his wife Mary Antoinette.

• Mary Antoinette was competent but conceited, unwise, extravagant, surrounded by flatterers who exploited the weak government.

• Cronin listed reasons for the Revolution including betrayal by friends and courtiers, rumours, religious intolerance, bad rule of Louis XV, conflicts with priests, unruly crowds, political defections, lack of oratory skills, economic bankruptcy, selfish opposition, Louis XVI’s mistakes, and social inequality.

• The French administration was incompetent, disorganized, corrupt, and expensive, with no uniformity.

• The King was the head of state, assisted by five councils responsible for laws, orders, and supervising affairs.

• The country was divided into two types of provinces for administration:

  • ‘Governments’ (40 provinces), mostly old provinces with noble governors who received large salaries but had little real power.

  • ‘Generalites’ (34 provinces) where real administrative work was done, governed by ‘entendents’ appointed by the King from the bourgeois aristocratic class.

• The entendents had immense, unrestricted powers, controlled internal peace, security, tax collection, and answered only to the King.

• Local self-government did not exist; local administration was controlled from the Palace of Versailles.

• Local officials needed instructions from the capital even for minor issues.

• Public servants lacked administrative skills and were detached from real governance.

• Corruption and disorder were rampant in all administrative organs, including law and justice.

• There was no authoritative, uniform legal code; people were unaware of the laws applicable in their provinces.

• Multiple types of courts existed with unclear jurisdiction, causing confusion about which court could settle cases.

• The judicial system worsened due to the sale of judicial posts.

• Under the class-based system, the proletariat (lowest class) was denied justice, while aristocrats escaped punishment for certain crimes.

• Courts used Latin language, which was not understood by the general French public, limiting access to justice.

Social Set-up

• French society was complex and diversified, based on feudalism, inequality, and prerogatives.

• Society was divided into three main classes: Clergy (First Estate), Nobility (Second Estate), and Commoners (Third Estate).

• The Bishops (First Estate) and noble aristocrats (Second Estate) enjoyed special powers and privileges.

• The proletariat and bourgeoisie (Third Estate) had no special privileges.

• This unequal setup caused doubt, distrust, and dissatisfaction among the public.

• The elite with special rights comprised only 1% of the total French population.

• Before the Revolution, France had a population of 25 million, including 150,000 clergy and 140,000 nobles.

• Though small in number, the upper classes were far advanced in terms of rights, privileges, and lifestyle compared to the remaining 99%.

• Landlords and clergy owned one-fifth of the entire French property.

• Despite their wealth, the clergy and nobility were exempt from paying taxes.

• The resource-less commoners (Third Estate) bore the heavy tax burden.

• The special rights of the clergy and nobility created strong opposition among the common masses.

• If the King had addressed the issue of special rights and properly recognized the middle class, the Revolution might have been avoided.

Priests (Clergy)

• Majority of people in France were Roman Catholics, making the Roman Catholic Church dominant.

• The Church had a massive organization throughout France and possessed huge property but was exempt from taxes by convention.

• Due to its special rights and extensive influence, the Church was called “a state within a state.”

• The Church’s popularity declined in the eighteenth century due to growing notoriety and priests’ indulgence in levity despite the Church’s wealth.

• A prime reason for the decline was the rise of scepticism among the middle classes, questioning the existence of God and the utility of the Church.

• The Church’s feudal rights and strict enforcement caused great dissatisfaction, especially among farmers.

• Priests were divided into two categories: (i) higher clergy and (ii) ordinary clergy.

• The higher clergy included Archbishops and Abbots, who mostly came from nobility, earned immense incomes, and lived in luxury and comfort.

• Archbishops often humiliated ordinary clergymen.

• The ordinary clergy were minor priests serving in local cathedrals, mostly from lower or farmer classes.

• Ordinary priests performed religious rites for common people and shared their sufferings and joys.

• Their income was meagre, leading to great difficulty in living a normal life, and they were often poorly dressed.

• Ordinary priests harbored hatred and resentment against the Archbishops for their luxurious lifestyles and humiliation.

The Nobility or the Aristocracy

• Cardinal Richelieu and later Louis XIV (1643-1715) reduced the powers of feudal barons by stripping them of many privileges.

• Despite this, the nobility still enjoyed significant privileges and rights.

• All higher offices in the state, Church, and armed forces were held by the nobility.

• Nobles owned one-fifth of the entire land in France.

• The nobility lacked uniformity and homogeneity but all members shared great social prestige, were exempt from taxes, and held royal offices.

• Economically, feudal lords were unequal; some were wealthy while most were poor.

• A common trait among the nobility was the exploitation of farmers.

• The aristocrats and farmers harbored mutual hatred due to exploitation and cruelty by the aristocrats.

• The aristocracy’s special rights and cruelties caused strong resentment and indignation among the lower classes.

• Politically, the 18th century saw a revival of the nobility.

• Nobles sought to regain genuine sovereignty by entering key government bodies, aiming to reclaim power lost under earlier Bourbon rulers.

The Common Class

• About 94% of the French population belonged to the common class (proletariat) with no special rights.

• The common class included the middle class (bourgeoisie), artisans, labourers, and farmers.

• Middle Class (Bourgeoisie):

  • Comprised money-lenders, businessmen, teachers, advocates, doctors, writers, artists, and government employees linked to industry, business, and professions, not physical labor.

  • Held all positions except higher administrative posts.

  • Before the Revolution, the middle class was intensely dissatisfied due to:

    • (a) Their ambition to rise socially was blocked by the aristocracy in a class-based society rooted in “blue blood.” They believed class disparity could only be removed by destroying the feudal system.

    • (b) They had no influence over political institutions despite being educated, rich, and wise, leading them to support political change to favor their interests.

    • (c) Middle-class intellectuals believed society should be based on wisdom, and social inequality caused their dissatisfaction.

    • (d) Traders and businessmen prospered with flourishing trade and commerce, but were frustrated by restrictions on their business, supporting laissez-faire (free trade) reforms.

• Artisans and Labourers:

  • Lived in misery with low wages and long working hours.

  • Depended on the middle-class capitalists controlling industry and business.

  • Mostly lived in cities and were politically aware due to their close links with intellectuals.

• Farmers:

  • Made up 80% of the population and were mostly poor.

  • Two categories:

    • (i) Independent farmers who owned land.

    • (ii) Semi-serfs who could not leave their landlord’s land freely.

  • Both groups were victims of nobility’s exploitation.

  • Farmers had to pay up to 80% of their income in taxes.

  • Their social and economic misery fueled bitter discontent after the 18th century.