• During the Middle Ages, Europe was divided into several small political units with people attached to religious feelings and regional interests.

• In the sixteenth century, these small units were replaced by nation-states such as England, France, Spain, Portugal, and Sweden.

• Nation-states developed national language, literature, and a new awakening.

• The rise of nation-states rationalized national boundaries based on historical basis.

• The chief cause of the rise of nation-states was the spirit of patriotism.

• Machiavelli, in The Prince, described a patriotic king and introduced the concept of the nation-state.

• A strong nation-state was deemed essential for public welfare; a weak king could not implement effective governance.

• Significant factors for the growth of absolute monarchies included the crusades, rise of middle classes, fall of feudalism, rise of nationalism, industrial revolution, opposition of the church, progress in warfare, and geographical discoveries.

• The earliest nation-states in Europe were England and France.

• The Hundred Years War (1337-1453) promoted nationalism in both England and France; France’s victory weakened the British king’s power.

• The Wars of the Roses (1455-1485) ended with Henry VII ascending the English throne, who established a powerful monarchy by:

  • Controlling feudal lords and nobles and prohibiting private armies

  • Re-establishing the Star Chamber Court to curb feudal abuses

  • Enhancing national income and trade

  • Patronizing the middle class to reduce feudal influence

  • Establishing matrimonial alliances with Spain and Scotland

• In 15th century France, nationalism grew through the Hundred Years War and Joan of Arc’s leadership.

• Charles VII raised a national army and levied a land tax called Telley.

• Louis XI (1461-1483) curtailed feudal lord power.

• Henry IV founded the Bourbon dynasty, paving the way for France’s glory.

• Under Louis XIII and Prime Minister Richelieu, the supremacy of the monarch was established; France gained international prestige through participation in the Thirty Years’ War.

• Absolute monarchies also rose in Russia, Spain, and Prussia.

• Positive outcomes of nation-states included:

  • End of chaotic feudal order and serfdom

  • Encouragement of new production methods and expansion

  • Reforms in exchange methods and support for geographical explorations

  • Stable central authority protecting traders and businessmen internally and externally

  • Henry VII banned imports to protect home industries

  • More rational and scientific national boundaries

  • Nations formed as organizations of people with similar economic interests and cultural traditions

• Negative outcomes included:

  • Nationalism used as a tool against other nations in business rivalry and imperial expansion

  • Lack of control on ruler’s rights leading to despotism and protests against absolute monarchies

  • Despite attempts, nation-states could not establish lasting peace in Europe

  • Post-feudal wars gave way to national wars and wars of succession

• By the early modern age, Spain, Portugal, France, and England emerged as dominant national monarchies, representing national awareness.

• The 16th-17th centuries saw the rise of national monarchs who centralized political power, motivated by:

  • War, which increased economic power

  • Desire to extend dynastic empires, spread religion, and advance commercial interests

• Continuous wars from 1618 to 1648 in Central Europe increased expenses and excessive taxation, provoking opposition lacking organization, except in England where a new class limited monarchy.

• The rise of nation-states led to:

  • The end of feudalism

  • Economic growth and increased production

  • Discovery of new technical methods

  • Precise and logical national boundaries

  • The rise of national consciousness as a legacy of past absolutism

Rise of Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century

• Nationalism is a spirit where a person’s highest loyalty is dedicated to their state.

• Balanced nationalism promotes national growth, while violent nationalism may lead to war.

• The American War of Independence is a prime example of nationalism and desire for freedom.

• The French Revolution spread nationalism throughout Europe.

• After the Napoleonic wars, nationalism spread in Germany, Poland, Italy, Hungary, and Balkan states where people desired personal freedom and self-rule.

• Despite the rise of nationalism and liberalism, leaders like Metternich tried to obstruct these movements.

• The Congress of Vienna aimed to restore the old order, rejecting nationalism and liberalism.

• Liberalism and democracy promoted nationalism.

• Liberalism means restrained liberty and equality, aiming to free people from excessive control.

• Liberals sought freedom of speech, writing, assembly, and security of personal property.

• They advocated for constitutional government and duly elected legislatures with limited extension of the franchise.

• Liberals favored minimum government interference (laissez-faire) and opposed religious interference in government.

• Main opponents of liberalism were aristocrats, clergy, and military officers.

• Liberalism first spread in Western Europe, where the Industrial Revolution was strong.

• Nationalism ideologically emerged from the 18th-century intellectual movement condemning disparity and despotism.

• Nationalists favored constitutional monarchy but did not support full franchise for the poor and wage earners.

• They sought social reforms only to end dictatorship and achieve prosperity without obstacles.

• After 1870, the middle class became conservative, opposing further political and social changes; they were replaced by the industrial proletariat in leading nationalism.

• Post-1870, liberalism and nationalism diverged; nationalism turned violent and aggressive.

• New liberalism advocated maximum government interference in economic matters to protect middle and proletariat classes from aggressive nationalism.

• Nationalism is incomplete without secularism.

• The French Revolution paved the way for secular states in Europe.

• Secularism originated from the Holy Roman Empire in Western Europe, emphasizing moral and intellectual development as the highest duty.

• Secularism intensified nationalism and shattered conventional conservatism, promoting liberal attitudes.

• Liberalism appeared before nationalism in the 16th and 17th centuries, developing systematically in England via thinkers like John Locke, Adam Smith, Ricardo, Malthus, Jeremy Bentham, and John Stuart Mill.

• Early liberalism promoted non-interference in the economy (laissez-faire), known as negative liberalism.

• Later, positive liberalism accepted state interference to combat social evils such as ignorance, illiteracy, addiction, and begging.

• Nationalism as an ideology emerged from the European Enlightenment, the Glorious Revolution of England, and the French Revolution.

• The Enlightenment opposed imposing a particular lifestyle on citizens.

• The Glorious Revolution rejected the divine right of kings.

• The French Revolution emphasized the inalienable rights of individuals, marking the triumph of nationalism.

• Nationalism originated as a reaction to monarchical power.

• In England, elite awakening occurred when the King tried to impose taxes without Parliament’s consent.

• In France, the King suppressed public political discussion.

• By the 19th century, sustaining political autocracy and old social inequalities became difficult.

• Europe experienced the impact of the French Revolution and Napoleon’s conquests, increasing national awareness.

• Reactionary forces aimed to dominate political, economic, and social life but were weakened by the Industrial Revolution and the rise of the bourgeoisie.

• The Congress of Vienna tried to restore the old order, suppressing nationalism, liberalism, and democracy, but failed to stop their growth.

• The French Revolution sowed the seeds of liberalism across Europe, challenging traditional rulers.

• Post-1815, there was a prolonged struggle between the ideals of the French Revolution and the reactionary old system.

• Countries like Britain, France, and Spain worked to secure public rights and remove despotism.

• Countries like Germany and Italy struggled for national unification, while dependent countries like Poland and Ireland fought for independence.

• The core question was the role of citizens in state administration.

• The period 1815-1850 was marked by political frustration, a conflict between old order revival and revolutionary principles.

• Independence of Greece, secession of Belgium, dethronement of the Bourbon Dynasty in France, the Reform Act 1832 in Britain, and expulsion of Metternich showed the failure of reactionaries to impose old order.

• Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 largely failed, and tyrannical rule persisted in many countries.

• Between 1815-1830, European governments, mostly nobility-run, resisted change and preferred despotic rule.

• Rulers considered liberalism a threat to peace and security.

• Liberalism was strong where the middle class was weak and industry/trade underdeveloped.

• The bourgeoisie flourished with brisk economic activity, strengthening liberalism.

• Despite dominance of reactionary forces, nationalism intensified in the first half of the 19th century.

• Nobility and feudal classes opposed democracy, while masses were not yet enlightened to struggle for democratic rule.

• Kings and feudal barons initially supported nationalism for supremacy but opposed democracy for promoting representative parliaments, adult franchise, religious tolerance, and free press.

• Demands for agronomical and industrial reforms grew, especially in England, France, Spain, and Sweden.

• Early nationalists supported liberal programs but prioritized political freedom based on common language, customs, and culture.

• New constitutions were framed in many Western European states due to nationalism, liberalism, and democracy.

• Some kings adopted constitutions to prevent revolts.

• Between 1815 and 1871, despotic rule declined amid conflict between reactionary and liberal forces; ultimately, liberalism triumphed.

• This period saw the independence of Belgium and the unification of Italy and Germany.

• Violent nationalism was born around 1830, a year marked by revolution in Europe.

• The 1830 revolution in France inspired revolutions across Europe but mostly expressed popular rage against rulers rather than national goals; these were nationalist-liberal revolutions.

• The 1848 French Revolution spread across Europe but failed by mid-1850; reactionary forces regained power.

• Despotism was restored in most states, and progress slowed, though revolutionary ideas persisted.

• Rule of law from the revolution survived in Sardinia, Holland, Denmark, and democratic rule was confirmed in Switzerland in 1848.

• By 1850, Sardinia was Italy’s only constitutional and liberal state.

• The revolution changed political and social practices: people’s sovereignty replaced king’s sovereignty, nations replaced states, intellectualism replaced hereditary rule, feudalism was ended, and ordinary farmers gained personal freedom.

• From 1871 to 1914, a period of peace followed many wars.

• Nobility tried to maintain status by conceding some rights to progressive classes.

• The liberal orthodox class expanded franchise, formed representative institutions, and centralized administration.

• Meanwhile, socialist, communist, and terrorist forces pushed for democracy and societal regeneration.

• Parliamentary institutions developed across Western and Central Europe, though they varied.

• Conservatives feared widespread franchise would threaten monarchy, Church, and traditional order; thus, voting rights were limited to adult males.

• Reformists expected voting rights to end privileges of feudal lords and nobility, but this proved overly optimistic.

• The dissolution of the Paris Commune (1871) and Bismarck’s control over the German parliament showed a consensus to protect personal property and resist radical changes.