Introduction: The Philosophy of History

Introduction

Harshit Sharma

Political Science (BHU)

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The course of lectures focuses on the Philosophical History of the World.
Three methods of treating history: I. Original History II. Reflective History III. Philosophical History
Original History exemplified by Herodotus, Thucydides, and similar historians.
Original historians transfer external phenomena into internal conceptions.
Limited to deeds, events, and states of society within their environment.
Reflective History categorized into:
Universal History: Aims to gain a view of the entire history of a people, country, or the world.
Reflective treatment involves working up historical material with a distinct spirit.
German writers seek individual points of view, each proposing an original method.
Universal History often presents annals of a country complete; well-performed compilations are meritorious.
Compilers may lack the spirit of the times they describe, inserting their own cultural perspectives.
Example: Livy puts into the mouths of Roman figures orations resembling those of his era.
Johannes von Müller’s history criticized for a stiff, formal, pedantic style.
Preference for narratives with naivety and naturalness, like those found in old Tschudy.
Reflective History goes beyond the limits of time, transcending the present.
Principles guiding the author’s interpretation of actions and events are crucial in Reflective History.
Aspiring to traverse long periods or universality in history necessitates foreshortening through abstractions.
Original representations of the past as it existed are sacrificed for abstraction, including the omission of events and deeds.
Thought becomes the most trenchant epitomist in Reflective History.
Pragmatical Reflective History involves creating a present mental world from remote historical occurrences, emphasizing moral reflections.
Moral teaching from history often focuses on examples of virtue, but the practical application to politics is questioned.
Critical Reflective History involves a deep investigation of historical narratives for truth and credibility.
Higher criticism in Germany’s historical literature introduces anti-historical ideas.
Fragmentary Reflective History takes an abstract position, forming a transition to Philosophical History.
Critical, didactic branches like the History of Art, Law, or Religion form a bridge to Philosophical History.
Philosophical History represents the thoughtful consideration of history, emphasizing the idea that Reason is the sovereign of the world.
Reason, as the substance and infinite energy of the universe, is the guiding force in the history of the world.
The Philosophy of History is not a passive material for speculation; it involves the thoughtful consideration of the rational process in history.
The most general definition of Philosophical History is the recognition that Reason is the essence of the world.
The Philosophy of History considers Reason as the infinite complex underlying all natural and spiritual life.
Reflective History, when adopting general points of view, reveals the inward guiding soul of a nation’s annals.
The four species of Reflective History: Abstraction, Pragmatical, Critical, and Fragmentary.
The Philosophical History of the World is the third kind, involving the recognition of Reason as the essence and guiding force in history.
Anaxagoras, a Greek philosopher, is credited with being the first to propose the idea that Reason or Understanding governs the world. This concept was a significant development in the history of human intelligence.
Anaxagoras’s idea was that the movement of the solar system follows unchangeable laws, which are considered as Reason implicit in the phenomena. However, the celestial bodies themselves, like the sun and planets, do not possess consciousness or self-awareness of these laws.
Socrates adopted Anaxagoras’s doctrine, leading to the widespread acceptance of the idea that Nature is an embodiment of Reason and is subject to universal laws.
Plato, expressing disappointment with Anaxagoras’s application of the principle to nature, emphasized the importance of understanding Nature in harmony with Reason, where specific aims are demonstrated in each phenomenon and a grand purpose is evident in the entire Universe.
The discussion highlights the difference between having a principle in the abstract and its concrete application, emphasizing the importance of recognizing the development and organization of nature as a result of Reason.
The belief that Reason governs the world is further extended to the religious truth that a Providence controls the world. However, the discussion notes the limitations of a general belief in Providence and the need to apply it to the detailed processes observed in human history.
The text addresses the question of the possibility of knowing God and highlights the importance of recognizing divine wisdom (Reason) in the historical events of the world.
The inquiry into the essential destiny of Reason is equated with understanding the ultimate design of the world, emphasizing that this design is destined to be realized.
The text asserts that Universal History, as the exhibition of Spirit, represents the process of working out the knowledge of what Spirit is potentially.
The distinction between Spirit and Matter is discussed, with Spirit defined by its essence of Freedom. The self-contained existence of Spirit is identified as self-consciousness, wherein Spirit knows itself.
The development of the consciousness of Freedom is traced through historical periods: the Orientals not recognizing universal freedom, the Greeks and Romans knowing only some are free, and the German nations under Christianity being the first to understand that man, as man, is free.
The recognition of the principle of Freedom is seen as a gradual process, involving the application of the principle to various aspects of life, including political and social structures.
The history of the world is identified as the progress of the consciousness of Freedom, with different cultures and periods representing various grades in understanding this principle.
The destiny of the spiritual world is seen as the consciousness of its own freedom, with freedom being an indefinite and ambiguous term.
The abstract principle of freedom needs realization in the concrete, and the process involves the self-consciousness of freedom, making itself the object of attainment for Spirit.
The ultimate aim of the world’s history is the realization of freedom, and sacrifices throughout history are seen as offerings to this aim.
God’s purpose with the world is identified as the idea of freedom, translating religious language into the language of thought.
The means by which freedom develops itself to a world are found in the phenomenon of history.
History shows that human actions are driven by needs, passions, characters, and talents. Private aims and the satisfaction of selfish desires are powerful springs of action.
The ideal of reason may be realized in those with liberal or universal aims, but such virtues are often outweighed by individual passions and interests.
The analysis of history reveals the infinite difference between abstract principles and their realization in concrete existence.
The first glance at history suggests that the actions of individuals are primarily driven by their private needs, passions, and interests.
Passions, though often considered immoral, are seen as the subjective side of energy, will, and activity, and nothing great in the world is accomplished without passion.
The concrete union of the Idea and human passions in history is identified as Liberty, under the conditions of morality in a State.
A well-constituted and internally powerful State is one where the private interests of citizens align with the common interest of the State.
The history of mankind begins with an unconscious aim, and the process of history is directed towards rendering this unconscious impulse conscious.
The instruments and means for the World-Spirit to attain its object are the manifestations of vitality on the part of individuals and peoples, driven by their private interests and passions.
Reason is believed to govern the world and its history, with all else being subordinate to the universal and substantial existence governed by Reason.
The union of universal abstract existence with the individual is considered truth, but in the incomplete process of the world’s history, the abstract final aim is not yet the distinct object of desire and interest.
The question arises regarding the union of freedom and necessity, with the latent abstract process of Spirit seen as necessity, while conscious human will is seen as belonging to the domain of freedom.
Philosophy reveals an infinite antithesis between the free, universal form of the Idea and the abstract introversion, self-reflection, and formal existence-for-self inherent in individual self-consciousness.
The universal Idea exists as the substantial totality of things and as the abstract essence of free volition.
Individual self-consciousness represents a polar opposite to the general form of the Idea, signifying limitation, particularization, and reverence for the universal absolute being.
Metaphysics is tasked with comprehending the profound connection between these antithetical aspects.
The antithesis leads to the formation of all forms of particularity, and individual desires and passions become instruments for the realization of the universal Idea.
The union of universal abstract existence with the individual, the subjective, constitutes Truth in the realm of speculation.
In the process of World-History, abstract final aims are not yet consciously pursued, but the latent principle of freedom and necessity guides events.
The confluence of general principles and individual passions is embodied in the concept of liberty under moral conditions in a State.
The connection of events in history often produces results beyond the immediate intentions of the actors.
Historical individuals, or World-Historical Individuals, play a crucial role in realizing the universal Idea, even if they are not consciously aware of it.
Great historical men derive their purposes from an inner Spirit, which, though concealed, impels them to fulfill the needs of their time.
These individuals are not motivated by private gain alone but are driven by an unconscious impulse that aligns with the progression of the World-Spirit.
World-Historical Individuals are the clear-sighted ones of their time, understanding the nascent principle that needs to be realized.
The fate of World-Historical Individuals is often characterized by labor, trouble, and a lack of calm enjoyment. They face early deaths, murders, or exile.
Envy may lead to attempts to depreciate the happiness of historical figures, but the Free Man recognizes and rejoices in what is great and exalted.
The interest and passions of individuals form the common elements through which historical men are to be regarded.
Great historical men accomplish something significant because they will and achieve something great that aligns with the needs of their age.
The so-called “psychological” view, which attributes actions solely to personal passions, fails to grasp the larger historical context and purpose.
Historical figures must be understood within the sphere of general considerations of justice, duty, and essential principles.
World-Historical Individuals often face tragic fates, achieving their aims but suffering personal losses or tragic ends.
Historical literature that focuses on the private aspects of historical figures may diminish their historical significance and moral stature.
World-Historical Individuals are devoted to the One Aim, and their actions may seem inconsiderate of other great interests.
The undying worm for those who criticize and belittle historical figures is the realization that their views and vituperations have no lasting impact on the world.
The special interest of passion is integral to the active development of a general principle; the Universal results from the particular and its negation.
The cunning of reason is evident as it employs passions for its development, while individuals, driven by these passions, bear the brunt of loss and suffer the penalty.
Phenomenal being, particularly individuals and their passions, pays the price for the realization of the general principle.
Morality, ethics, and religion are elements of human individuality that should not be regarded as subordinate to the highest aim, as they possess inherent eternal and divine qualities.
Individuals, in their freedom, bear responsibility for the corruption and weakening of morals and religion.
Human destiny is the ability to will either good or evil, subjecting individuals to moral imputation for their actions.
World-Historical Individuals, driven by an inner Spirit, play a crucial role in realizing the universal Idea, even if they are not consciously aware of it.
Envy may lead to attempts to depreciate the happiness of historical figures, but the Free Man recognizes and rejoices in what is great and exalted.
The interest and passions of individuals form the common elements through which historical men are to be regarded.
Great historical men accomplish something significant because they will and achieve something great that aligns with the needs of their age.
World-Historical Individuals are the clear-sighted ones of their time, understanding the nascent principle that needs to be realized.
The fate of World-Historical Individuals is often characterized by labor, trouble, and a lack of calm enjoyment. They face early deaths, murders, or exile.
Envy may lead to attempts to depreciate the happiness of historical figures, but the Free Man recognizes and rejoices in what is great and exalted.
The connection of events in history often produces results beyond the immediate intentions of the actors.
Historical literature that focuses on the private aspects of historical figures may diminish their historical significance and moral stature.
World-Historical Individuals are devoted to the One Aim, and their actions may seem inconsiderate of other great interests.
The undying worm for those who criticize and belittle historical figures is the realization that their views and vituperations have no lasting impact on the world.
Religion, Morality, and Ethics are essentially elevated above all alien necessity and chance, having their foundation in the divine principle of Reason.
The subjective element in individuals — their interest, cravings, and impulses — is considered to have an infinite right to be consulted even in the realization of the great ideal aim.
The realization of the ideal aim involves the activity of personal existences in whom Reason is present as their absolute, substantial being.
The material in which the Ideal of Reason is wrought out is personality itself, human desires, and subjectivity in general.
The moral whole, the State, becomes the positive reality and completion of freedom, where the individual has and enjoys freedom by recognizing and willing that which is common to the whole.
Law, Morality, and Government are seen as the positive reality and completion of Freedom, rather than limiting factors, as they provide the essential framework for individual liberty.
Subjective volition, or passion, is the active force that propels individuals into action, while the Idea serves as the inner spring of action.
The State, as the realization of moral life, is the unity of universal essential Will with individual Will, constituting “Morality.”
Individuals within this unity experience moral life and possess value through substantiality alone.
Laws of morality are not accidental but essentially rational, reflecting the objective reality of Reason.
The State’s objective is to recognize and maintain the essential aspects of human practical activity and dispositions.
The moral whole of the State is crucial for the justification and merit of those who found states, even if they are initially rudimentary.
The history of the world focuses on peoples that form states, as the state is the realization of freedom for its own sake.
All spiritual reality and worth that individuals possess are derived from the state, as it provides the objective existence of Reason.
The state, as the object of history, allows freedom to gain objectivity and be enjoyed by individuals.
Freedom, when considered only in its subjective sense without essential objects and aims, leads to the misconception that limitation is a fettering of freedom.
Rousseau’s critique questions the concept of majority rule, as it may undermine the will of the minority and jeopardize freedom.
The assumption of a “state of nature” as a basis for natural freedom lacks historical justification and often exists as a theoretical construct.
The idea that man is free by nature implies a natural condition with unconstrained exercise of freedom, which historical evidence does not support.
The state of nature is characterized by injustice, violence, untamed impulses, and inhuman deeds, requiring the development of law and morality.
The family, as a moral unit, is based on mutual surrender of individual personality, forming a substantial being with shared interests.
The patriarchal condition is a transition from the family to a broader community, involving a separation from blood ties and the emergence of independent personalities.
The patriarchal condition, often associated with theocratic constitutions, signifies a transition where familial bonds become more formalized.
Constitutional arrangements are necessary for the abstraction of the state to attain life and reality, leading to distinctions between commanding and obeying.
The distinction between commanding and obeying, though seemingly contradictory to freedom, is essential for the practical functioning of the state.
Constitutional arrangements involve the selection of individuals to take political leadership roles, introducing a separation between those who command and those who obey.
Theoretical considerations of political liberty often argue for minimizing obedience and maximizing individual will in decision-making.
Political constitutions can be broadly classified into monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, with further divisions within each category.
The best constitution is debated based on its ability to achieve the objectives of the state, such as the calm enjoyment of life or universal happiness.
Ideals of constitutions and education of governing bodies often focus on achieving specific objectives within the state.
The inquiry into the best constitution is complex, involving theoretical considerations, subjective convictions, and the practical organization of political power.
The idea that the best constitution can be chosen based solely on theoretical reflection is criticized, as historical, cultural, and practical factors play crucial roles.
The introduction of a constitution recognized as the best is not a matter of free choice but is influenced by various factors such as historical context and cultural values.
Historical examples, such as the Persian grandees’ deliberation, highlight the naive notion that the best constitution can be chosen purely through theoretical reflection.
In contemporary times, the idea of freedom is often associated with the republic, considered the just and true political constitution.
Some supporters of the republic acknowledge the practical limitations and argue that, under certain circumstances, a monarchical constitution may be more advantageous.
The necessity of a particular constitution is often linked to the condition of the people, but this perspective neglects the interconnectedness of various spiritual forces within a state.
A state is an individual totality, and its political constitution is intertwined with religion, art, philosophy, and culture.
The development of states involves phases such as regal power, aristocracy, democracy, and monarchy, reflecting the evolution of the general and particular will.
The constitution is vital for the self-development of the rational, representing the embodiment of rational freedom in an objective form.
The state is the manifestation of the idea of spirit in the external manifestation of human will and freedom.
Political constitutions vary among world-historical peoples and are not universally applicable.
Freedom, in its ideal conception, is based on the recognition of the universal will, not subjective will and caprice.
The subjective will is a formal determination, while the rational will independently determines and unfolds its own being.
The state is the moral whole and the reality of freedom, serving as the objective unity of subjective knowledge, will, and the idea of freedom.
The union between the objective and subjective sides is evident in the state, which becomes the basis and center of various elements in the life of a people.
Religion, art, and philosophy represent different forms of the conscious union between the objective and subjective in the human spirit.
Religion involves the consciousness of absolute spirit and renunciation of individual interest through devotion and sacrifice.
Art goes further into the realm of the actual and sensuous, representing the form of God and the divine in various ways.
Philosophy, as the highest phase, engages the thinking faculty to grasp the true, making it the freest and wisest form of the conscious union.
The general principle manifesting in the State is the entire cycle of a nation’s culture, with its definite substance being the Spirit of the People.
Conscious realization of the Spirit and essential nature is achieved through Religion, Art, and Science, which are various aspects of the same substantial being.
Religion plays a crucial role in defining what a nation considers True, with the conception of God forming the general basis of a people’s character.
Freedom can only exist where Individuality is recognized as having a positive and real existence in the Divine Being.
The State is based on Religion, and the principles of the State must be regarded as valid manifestations of the Divine Nature.
Political constitutions are influenced by the specific religion adopted by a nation, shaping the spirit and constitution of that state.
Implanting religion in a community should not be seen as creating it; rather, religion’s self-production lies much deeper.
Separating political constitutions from religion results in abstract and indefinite principles, lacking a real center and intrinsic worth.
The vital principle of the State is termed Morality, with the State, its laws, and its natural features constituting the essence of a people’s existence.
The Spirit of a People is a determinate and particular Spirit, united with various forms of a nation’s consciousness, such as Religion, Art, and Philosophy.
National geniuses are treated as One Individual in the process of Universal History, with each contributing to the divine development of Spirit.
World History shows the progression of Spirit toward recognition and adoption of the Truth, culminating in full consciousness.
The course of World History is characterized by a perpetual self-repeating cycle in Nature but a continuous advance to something better, more perfect in the world of Spirit.
The principle of Perfectibility, indicating an impulse of perfectibility and a capacity for change for the better, contrasts with the stable positions sought by certain religions and states.
Religions and states often resist the principle of Perfectibility, attributing changes to accidents, imprudence, or the evil passions of individuals.
Perfectibility is an indefinite term without a determined scope, goal, or standard to estimate the improved, more perfect state of things it tends toward.
The principle of Development involves the existence of a latent germ or potentiality striving to realize itself, seen in both Spirit and organized natural objects.
Spirit, as the absolute arbiter of things, undergoes a development mediated by consciousness and will, leading to a conflict with itself in the pursuit of its Ideal being.
Spirit’s expansion is not a harmless growth but a stern, reluctant working against itself, aiming at the realization of its Completeness, i.e., Freedom.
Universal History exhibits the gradation in the development of the principle whose substantial purport is the consciousness of Freedom.
The analysis of successive grades in the development belongs to Logic in its abstract form and to the Philosophy of Spirit in its concrete aspect.
Spirit begins with a germ of infinite possibility, which progresses from the imperfect to the more perfect, involving the contradiction of the Imperfect.
Imperfect existence is a contradiction continually annulled and solved, representing the instinctive movement to break through mere nature and attain self-consciousness.
The history of Spirit starts where Rationality begins to manifest itself in the actual conduct of the world’s affairs.
The investigation of a primitive paradisiacal condition of man, as claimed by some, lacks historical confirmation and is based on arbitrary subjective assumptions.
Philosophical investigation should take up history where Rationality becomes conscious, willful action, and development in the true sense begins.
The inorganic existence of Spirit, marked by abstract Freedom and unconsciousness, is not a subject of history.
The family, based on natural and religious morality, is excluded from the historical process; history begins when spiritual unity transcends the family.
Consciousness, as clarity, is necessary for the manifestation of universal substantial objects, and Freedom is the recognition and adoption of such universals, leading to the creation of a reality in accord with them—the State.
The Sanskrit discovery and the connection of European languages with it reveal the diffusion of nations from Asia as a center, demonstrating dissimilar development from originally related languages.
The connection between German and Indian peoples, established through language analysis, proves the historical diffusion of nations and their dissimilar development.
Peoples may have existed for a long time without forming a society or state, and their pre-political period lies beyond the scope of history.
The connection between widely separated languages is a historical fact, not an inference deduced from combining circumstances, enriching history with authentic information.
The term “History” in language unites the objective and subjective sides, encompassing both the events (res gestae) and the narration (historia rerum gestarum).
The family memorials and patriarchal traditions are limited to family and clan interests, lacking serious remembrance of a uniform course of events.
The State, in its stable existence, produces formal commands and laws, leading to the creation of historical records.
Periods before written history, filled with revolutions and nomadic wanderings, lack objective history due to the absence of subjective history or annals.
India, rich in intellectual products, has ancient codes but lacks history due to the petrification of social distinctions in caste and the absence of a political constitution.
Language development during rude conditions is highly intellectual, but as civilization advances, language becomes poorer and ruder, illustrating a peculiar phenomenon.
The growth of families to clans, clans to peoples, and linguistic developments remain voiceless without contact with states or political constitutions.
Universal history shows the development of the consciousness of Freedom, progressing through a series of increasingly adequate expressions or manifestations of Freedom.
The idiosyncrasy of Spirit or National Genius is the determinate principle for each step in history, shaping a nation’s religion, polity, ethics, legislation, science, art, and more.
The peculiar genius of a people constitutes the element of historical inquiry, derived from experience and historically proven.
The conditions indispensable for history include disciplined abstraction, intimate acquaintance with the Idea, and familiarity with abstract elementary conceptions related to the development of Freedom.
Philosophy’s a priori method, attempting to insinuate ideas into empirical data, is criticized due to a lack of acquaintance with the ideas related to the development of Freedom.
The essential in history is the Consciousness of Freedom, and historical facts are assessed based on their bearing on this category, which is the truly essential aspect.
Opposition to comprehensive conceptions in science partly arises from the inability to grasp and understand Ideas.
Exceptions in natural history, like hybrid growths, confirm well-defined rules by showing the conditions in which they apply or the abnormality of cases.
Instances of malformed human beings do not negate the essential characteristics of a real, concrete human being, which includes a brain and a heart.
Genius, talent, moral virtues, sentiments, and piety are found universally, transcending geographical zones and political conditions.
Examples are given to confirm the presence of these qualities in various contexts, but a formalist approach ignores the specificities of the objects under consideration.
Aesthetic criticism demanding subjective pleasure as the rule is criticized, and the importance of the substantial content of artistic productions is emphasized.
The history of the world occupies a higher ground than personal morality, as it deals with the activities of the Spirit of Peoples rather than individual character.
The formal rectitude of those who resist the necessary progress may be acknowledged, but moral claims must not be brought into collision with world-historical deeds.
The Litany of private virtues should not be raised against world-historical actions, as the focus is on the Spirit of Peoples rather than individual moral judgments.
Philosophy makes its appearance where political life exists, with periods necessitating the seeking of refuge in ideal regions from the discordant real world.
Poetry, plastic art, science, and philosophy are found among world-historical peoples, but there is diversity in style, bearing, and subject matter.
Formal culture, growing with the development of the State, leads to the rise of sciences, poetry, and art, culminating in philosophy.
The association of men in a state necessitates formal culture, and the arts, both plastic and poetic, thrive in civilized societies.
Philosophy emerges where political life exists, as it involves the consciousness of the form proper to thought.
The material for philosophy, the Thinking of Thinking, is prepared by general culture, and periods of societal development may lead to the seeking of ideal harmony in philosophical realms.
There is a distinction between abstract and concrete unity, and the importance of recognizing the concrete unity as synonymous with Spirit in philosophy is highlighted.
Spheres such as thinking Reason and Freedom remain the same across cultures, providing a common ground despite variations in substantial content.
Morality can exist without the essential consciousness of the Idea of Freedom, as seen in Chinese and Indian moralities, which lack the concept of moral freedom.
Chinese morality views moral laws as external, positive commands, administered by government officials and legal tribunals, with a focus on duties and rules of courtesy.
Indian doctrine emphasizes the renunciation of sensuality, but the goal is the annihilation of consciousness rather than the pursuit of positive moral freedom.
Genius, talent, moral virtues, and sentiments are found in every zone, under all political constitutions and conditions.
Reflection should not limit itself to abstract categories, as the specificities of the object in question fall outside recognized principles.
Intellectual positions adopting merely formal points of view provide room for ingenious questions, erudite views, and striking comparisons.
Examples from various cultures and historical periods are used to support the view that social virtue and morality exist across diverse nations.
There is a doubt raised about whether humanity has become morally better over the course of history.
The History of the World is argued to occupy a higher ground than personal morality, focusing on the spirit of peoples and the general culture.
The deeds of great individuals in world history are seen as justified from both intrinsic and moral perspectives.
The study of genius, poetry, and philosophy is criticized for often adopting a formal approach that misses the true depth of the matter.
Culture, defined as familiarity with general conceptions, is contrasted with philosophy, which involves a consciousness of thought itself.
Philosophy is seen as dependent on culture but requires the abstraction of specific objects into universal forms to become true philosophy.
The diversity in art, science, and philosophy among world-historical peoples is acknowledged, but emphasis is placed on the rationality of the subject matter.
The idea that a people attains its highest point when it gains a conception of its life and condition is highlighted.
The Spirit of a people is described as a concrete spirit that comprehends itself spiritually through thought.
The satisfaction of the Spirit of a people comes from realizing its grand objects and defending its work against external forces.
The Spirit of a people can face a natural death, characterized by a decline into mere customary life and political nullity.
A new principle is required for the Spirit of a people to transcend its previous achievements and advance to a higher stage.
The Spirit of a people gains satisfaction in the idea of virtue and morality, but this satisfaction can lead to complacency and decline.
The Spirit of a people, once it gains a conception of itself, undergoes a transformation, altering its substantial character and rising to a higher principle.
The importance of understanding the transition from one principle to another is emphasized in the philosophical comprehension of history.
Spirit is viewed as the result of its own activity, and its progression is compared to the growth of a plant from a seed.
The final aim of historical progression is the self-comprehending totality of the universal Spirit.
The principles animating successive phases of Spirit in different nations are steps in the development of the one universal Spirit.
Philosophy, focused on the eternally present, recognizes all past steps of Spirit as part of its essential nature.

Geographical Basis of History

The natural connection that contributes to the formation of a people’s spirit is seen as an essential basis in history.
Geographical basis, one such natural condition, plays a role in shaping the character of a people.
Nature, though important, should not be overrated or underrated; it contributes to, but does not solely determine, the course of history.
The temperate zone, particularly its northern half, is considered the true theater of world history due to its favorable conditions for human development.
The world is divided into Old and New, with intrinsic differences in physical and psychical constitution between them.
North and South America are examined, highlighting distinctions in historical development, governance, and religious orientation.
North America is characterized by colonization, Protestantism, republican ideals, and a lack of pressing population density issues.
South America, having been conquered by the Spanish, exhibits a history marked by military revolutions, Catholicism, and struggles for political stability.
The contrasting approaches to colonization and conquest have lasting effects on the political and religious landscapes of the two continents.
North America is seen as still having open land for cultivation, providing an outlet for population expansion unlike Europe.
The absence of neighboring states as direct threats contributes to North America’s current state of political stability.
The comparison between North America and Europe is deemed premature, as North America is still in a phase of outward expansion rather than facing the pressures of internal population growth.
The role of geography, nature, and historical circumstances in shaping the destinies of continents and peoples is a recurring theme throughout the text.
America is seen as the land of the future, where the burden of world history may reveal itself in a potential contest between North and South America.
The Old World, separated from America by the Atlantic Ocean, is the focus of the world’s history, particularly around the Mediterranean Sea.
The Mediterranean Sea is highlighted as the heart of the Old World, connecting Europe, Asia, and Africa, with significant historical centers around its shores.
Geographical distinctions are essential and rational, with three main elements: arid elevated land, valley plains permeated by great rivers, and coastal regions in immediate connection with the sea.
The elevated land is characterized by patriarchal life, division into single families, and occasional mass movements resulting in devastating invasions.
Valley plains, formed by rivers, give rise to civilizations, legal relations, and the foundation of great states, with agriculture as the primary principle of subsistence.
Coastal regions, connected by the sea, stimulate conquest, piracy, commerce, and honest gain. The sea is seen as inviting man to stretch beyond limited circles of thought and action.
Navigating the sea requires courage, daring, and wisdom, as it is a treacherous and deceitful element. The ship is praised as a remarkable invention.
The sea, with its boundless innocence, is also dangerous and violent, and coastal lands often separate themselves from the interior states.
The activity inspired by the sea is unique, and coastal regions tend to establish their independence from the states of the interior.
Holland and Portugal are cited as examples of coastal lands that have separated themselves from Germany and Spain, respectively.
Africa is divided into three parts: Africa proper south of the Sahara, European Africa north of the desert, and the river region of the Nile.
Africa proper remains mostly unknown, characterized by an isolated upland with a narrow habitable coast, marshland, and mountain ranges that hinder exploration and connection.
European Africa has a magnificent coast territory on the Mediterranean and the Atlantic, historically connected to Europe, with territories like Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli.
The Nile river region, particularly Egypt, stands out as a mighty center of independent civilization in Africa, isolated and singular in its character.
The African character is challenging to comprehend due to the absence of the category of universality in Negro life.
The consciousness of a higher power is lacking in African religion; fetishes are created arbitrarily, and there is no spiritual adoration or aesthetic independence.
Religion in Africa involves projecting hidden might into the world through images, like animals, trees, stones, or wooden figures, called fetishes.
Worship of the dead is present, where ancestors are seen as influencing the living, but this power remains substantially in bondage to the living.
The African religion lacks a true sense of dependence, and sorcery, not God, is often associated with the manipulation of natural elements.
The African worldview does not recognize death as a universal natural law; it attributes death to evil-disposed magicians, emphasizing the elevation of man over nature.
The Negroes exhibit a perfect contempt for humanity, lack a sense of justice and morality, and have no knowledge of the immortality of the soul.
Slavery is prevalent among the Negroes in their own land, and their moral sentiments are weak or non-existent, leading to the sale of family members.
The lack of regard for life among Negroes is attributed to their contempt for humanity, with courage displayed in war but without valuing life itself.
The political constitution of the African race is hindered by their nature, which lacks the recognition of universal spiritual laws and relies on arbitrary subjective choices.
In Africa, there is no recognition of free laws uniting the community; external force is needed to hold the state together due to arbitrary volition.
Despotic power is crucial in Africa, with rulers standing at the head to restrain sensuous barbarism, but they are also limited by the violent temper of their subjects.
African political structures involve chiefs consulted by the king, who may exercise authority and eliminate rivals through fraud or force.
Various prerogatives exist for African kings, such as inheriting property, owning unmarried women, and disposing of discontented kings through methods like sending parrots’ eggs or deputations.
Fanaticism in Africa can lead to extreme actions, including ceremonial killings, mutilations, and frenzied violence before wars, as seen in the Ashantee example.
Africa lacks self-control, with passions fermenting suddenly and leading to destructive consequences, driven more by physical than spiritual enthusiasm.
In Dahomey, upon the death of a king, society descends into chaos, marked by massacres, plunder, and disorganization.
The destruction caused by African excitement is linked to the absence of positive ideas or thoughts, representing a physical rather than a spiritual enthusiasm.
Slavery is a significant aspect of African history, and it is viewed differently by the Africans themselves, who may not perceive it as unbecoming.
The author suggests that slavery among the Negroes might have contributed to an increase in human feeling.
The “Natural condition” in Africa is considered one of absolute and thorough injustice, contrary to the Right and Just.
Slavery is seen as an injustice, but the gradual abolition of slavery is deemed wiser and more equitable than sudden removal.
Africa, as presented here, is considered the Unhistorical, Undeveloped Spirit, existing on the threshold of world history.
Asia is characterized as the Orient quarter of the globe, where the Light of Spirit arose, marking the beginning of world history.
Asia’s physical constitution involves antitheses, including the northern slope (Siberia) and various geographical principles, such as the Upland, Plains, and their intermixture.
In Asia, the Upland is associated with nomadic tribes and cattle breeding, Plains with agriculture and industry, and the intermixture in Hither Asia includes regions like Arabia, Syria, and Asia Minor.
Geographical differences in Asia correlate with distinct societal activities, such as pastoralism in the Upland, agriculture in the Plains, and commerce/navigation for areas with intermixture.
Southern Europe, the first part of Europe, includes regions around the Mediterranean like Greece and Italy, known for being historical centers.
The heart of Europe, the second part, comprises countries like France, Germany, and England, where the World-Spirit found its home during significant historical periods.
The third part consists of northeastern European states like Poland, Russia, and Slavonic kingdoms, forming a connection with Asia and emerging later in historical development.

Classification of Historic Data

Geographical survey marks the course of world history from East to West.
Sun, symbolizing Light and self-involved existence, rises in the East.
Imagination likens the blind gaining sight to astonishment in the presence of the rising Sun.
History progresses from Asia (East) to Europe (West).
East represents unreflecting consciousness, substantial freedom, and despotic rule.
Greek and Roman world introduces some individual freedom; German world understands all are free.
Political forms: Despotism, Democracy, Aristocracy, Monarchy.
State is universal spiritual life; individuals relate to it with confidence or reflective, subjective existence.
Substantial freedom lacks subjective freedom; laws are fixed, obeyed without personal insight.
East signifies unreflected consciousness, substantial existence, and lack of distinction between absolute and subjective Spirit.
Oriental Empires have rational ordinances but individuals remain as mere accidents.
Oriental conception glorifies One Individual, with no separate existence for others.
Two elements in Substantiality: spatial stability and conflicting relations without progress.
Greek World represents adolescence, with individualities forming and morality linked to free volition.
Morality in Greece is aesthetic, harmonized with the Real, but not yet true morality.
Roman State signifies abstract universality, sacrificing individuals for national objects.
Roman State embodies harsh toil, detachment from individuals, but grants abstract, formal universality.
Roman State involves struggle between abstract universal principle and individual caprice.
Pain inflicted by despotism leads to inner life, concrete subjectivity, and Spiritual pacification.
German world, the fourth phase, signifies Old Age of World-History.
Reconciliation begins with Christianity but fully develops in the history of German Nations.
Mohammedan principle counters barbarism and caprice, develops faster than Christianity.
Spiritual principle animates Ecclesiastical State, contrasted with rough barbarism of Secular State.
Secular power vanishes in presence of Ecclesiastical, but Ecclesiastical loses influence with corruption.
Corruption leads to higher form of rational thought, Spirit driven back upon itself, capable of realizing Ideal of Reason.
Antithesis of Church and State vanishes, Spiritual reconnects with Secular, and Freedom realizes its true existence.