• Feminist trend in political thought arose at the end of the eighteenth century.

• It gained momentum during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, developing through several waves and diverse directions.

• The first wave of feminism emerged in the late nineteenth century and lasted until the early twentieth century, focusing on political representation and social emancipation of women.

• The second wave appeared in the late twentieth century, advancing a radical agenda seeking emancipation of women in all spheres of life.

• Feminist theory broadly evolved into three schools of thought:
  (a) Liberal feminism
  (b) Socialist feminism
  (c) Radical feminism

Liberal Feminism

• Liberal feminism is the earliest trend in feminist thought, seeking amelioration of women’s condition through liberalism.

• It advocates reforms within existing liberal institutions in Western countries and opposes revolutionary change.

• Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-97) published A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), arguing for fundamental equality between men and women within liberal democracy.

• Wollstonecraft stated both men and women are rational creatures, but women were deprived of education and public participation.

• At that time, women were seen as emotional and playful rather than rational, had no legal rights to property or divorce, were debarred from many occupations, and were subject to husband’s abuse.

• She challenged female inferiority beliefs and demanded equal rights for women, laying foundations for campaigns on education, employment, property, and voting rights.

• John Stuart Mill (1806-73), in The Subjection of Women (1869), argued women were not inferior to men and deserved full legal and political rights.

• Mill highlighted that society loses out if it ignores women’s rational qualities and advocated a more equal marital relationship for better life quality.

• He called for property law reforms so women retain rights to their property after marriage.

• Betty Friedan (1921-2006), a prominent contemporary liberal feminist, wrote The Feminine Mystique (1963), urging substantive equality for women in work, politics, and private life.

• In The Second Stage (1983), Friedan emphasized the ongoing importance of home, family, and children for women.

• Betty Friedan aligns with Mary Wollstonecraft and John Stuart Mill in not wanting to overturn contemporary liberal society.

• She asserts the liberal creed of autonomy and self-determination should apply equally to women and men.

• Friedan advocates widespread access to crèche and similar facilities to help women balance professional careers and family responsibilities.

• She is regarded as an inspirational figure for second-wave liberal feminists.

• Carole Pateman (1940-) is another key contemporary liberal feminist.

• Pateman is known for synthesizing conceptual problems in liberal democratic theory with the theory of patriarchal sexual politics.

• In The Sexual Contract (1988), she attacked the misconception that the liberal social contract theory had ended patriarchal rule.

• Pateman argues most social contract theorists view women as incapable of moving from natural to civil society, except as subordinates to men.

• The triumph of the social contract did not defeat patriarchy; it transformed father-right rule into the dominion of all men over all women.

• Liberal theorists consider relations between sexes as private, removing the subject from political inquiry.

• Without recognizing women as equal individuals in liberal society, reforms for women’s freedom of contract won’t change the sexual basis of the social contract.

• Pateman advocates reconstructing the social contract to ensure substantive equality between men and women.

• In summary, liberal feminism accepts liberal values of individuality and freedom but campaigns for their equal realization for women and men.

• It is the most popular feminist stream but not considered highly influential.

Social Contract

Social contract refers to an agreement among men whereby they relinquish the hypothetical ‘state of nature’ and enter into civil society. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), John Locke (1632-1704), English philosophers, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-78), French philosopher, are regarded the chief exponents of the theory of the social contract. They have given different accounts of the state of nature, the terms of the contract, and the nature of sovereignty which comes into existence in consequence of the social contract.

Sovereignty

Sovereignty refers to the supreme legal authority which is an essential element of the State. It is by virtue of this authority that a State can make binding laws, command obedience to its orders, and punish those who fail to abide by law or obey its orders, Only a sovereign State can enter into a treaty with other States and conduct war against enemy States.

Liberalism

Liberalism refers to a principle of politics which regards individual as a rational creature and holds his ‘liberty’ or ‘freedom’ to be the first and foremost goal of public policy. Liberty, in this sense, implies ‘liberation’ from restraints, particularly from the restraints imposed by a tradition-bound society like a feudal state, or by an authoritarian regime. This principle was evolved in the West in late seventeenth century in order to liquidate feudal privileges of the land-owning class and to create favourable conditions for the new entrepreneurial class to enable them to contribute to social progress.

Liberal Democracy

Liberal democracy refers to the system of governance based on the principles of liberalism and democracy. Liberalism seeks to evolve such rules and procedures that would secure liberty of individual while democracy implies the formation of government with the consent of the ordinary people. Accordingly, liberal democracy is largely identified by the following characteristics: (a) Representative government based on majority rule with due recognition of minority rights; (b) More than one political parties freely competing for political power; (c) Periodic elections based on universal adult franchise; (d) Political offices not confined to any privileged class; these are open to any citizen who fulfils the prescribed qualifications; (e) Accountability of government to the electorate; (f) Protection of civil liberties of citizens (such as freedom of thought and expression, movement, association and assembly, etc. including freedom to criticize the government); and (g) Independence of judiciary from executive and legislative control.