The Meaning of Virtue

• The Greek word ἀρετή, translated as virtue, originally meant excellence of any kind.

• In English, virtue can also mean general excellence, e.g., “The medicine has lost its virtue.”

• Generally, virtue refers to human excellence and can be described as the forms of human excellence.

• In ethics, virtue has two meanings:

  • (a) A quality of character – a disposition to do what is right in a particular direction or to perform universal duties.

  • (b) A habit of action – corresponding to the quality of character; e.g., the honesty of a man or his dealings can both be called virtues.

• Laird’s classification of virtues:

  • (1a) Virtues of the righteous quality – habitual performance of duties and the character leading to such actions; emphasis on habitual right action.

  • (1b) Virtues of the requisite quality – necessary for a virtuous character but found in bad characters; may increase wickedness; includes prudence and perseverance.

  • (1c) Virtues of the generous quality – mainly emotional, add beauty or moral value to actions, may impart nobility even to morally wrong conduct; examples include adventurous courage or loyalty.

• Virtues of the righteous quality are most important in the moral life.

• Virtues of the requisite quality are subordinate, valuable only when accompanying righteous virtues.

• Virtues of the generous quality depend more on natural endowments, less on duty; have aesthetic appeal, give adventurous atmosphere to goodness.

• The idea of virtue as “more than duty” often refers to virtues of the generous quality, which add emotion and picturesqueness.

• Virtues required vary with a person’s station; e.g., courage required of a soldier differs from that of a statesman.

• Societal conditions affect emphasis on virtues:

  • In peaceful industrial ages, industrial virtues gain importance.

  • In wartime, military virtues like courage and endurance gain new emphasis.

• Virtues are not entirely relative to circumstances; core moral qualities remain constant.

• The four cardinal Greek virtues – justice, wisdom, courage, self-control – have the same essential nature despite differing applications over time.

• Examples:

  • Thermopylae soldiers’ courage and Captain Oates’ Antarctic sacrifice show the same high virtue of courage in different contexts.

• Analytical study of virtues confirms that some conduct is objectively good, explained by conformity to a natural law.