• Every science is governed by certain laws and rules discovered through research.

• Early Positivist sociologists aimed to discover such laws through various research methods.

• Durkheim suggested the use of multi-variate analysis, similar to statistics.

• Positivists relied on methods akin to those in natural sciences, whereas Non-Positivists avoided them.

• With the growth of the discipline, research methods became more vibrant.

• Simple data crunching proved inadequate, leading to the adoption of interactive methods like Participant Observation.

• Unlike natural sciences, these methods had inherent limitations when applied in Sociology.

• Natural sciences allow discovery of laws in controlled labs, whereas in Sociology, the whole society acts as a lab.

• Controlling variables in Sociology is extremely difficult to conceive and administer.

• Despite limitations, sociological research methods enhanced the credibility of the discipline.

• They helped in systematising concepts and providing corroborative data and content.

Significance of Research Methodologies

• Use of research methodology is necessary in Sociology as it distinguishes sociological work from layperson knowledge of society.

• Research work provides legitimacy and wider acceptance to sociological work.

• Different methods are used for different purposes like Positivist research or Interpretivist research.

• Research methods in Sociology fall into three categories: Quantitative or Qualitative methods, Micro or Macro methods, Primary or Secondary data methods.

• Depending on the requirement, different methods can be applied.

• Survey research is used in large-scale research involving many respondents and investigators, and is the most common example of a macro method.

• For studying a particular group, a micro method like Participant Observation can be used.

• A research design follows steps such as choice of topics, collection of facts, representation of facts, hypothesis making, testing, and validation.

• Exploratory Research Design is used in the initial stages of research to gain preliminary information, fine-tune broad problems into specific problems, and generate possible hypotheses.

• Exploratory research provides direction for further research and narrows down alternatives.

• Methods used in exploratory research include survey of existing literature, survey of experienced individuals, and analysis of selected case studies.

• Descriptive Research Design aims at accurate descriptions of variables related to the problem and is the most frequently used research method.

• Descriptive research is more formal and less flexible than exploratory research and may involve both qualitative and quantitative data.

• This design can be used for both Positivist and Non-Positivist research.

• Radcliffe Brown used such methods to describe primitive communities.

• Techniques under descriptive design include Panel Research Design (Longitudinal Research) and Cross Sectional Design.

• Panel/Longitudinal Research involves periodic data collection from a fixed panel of respondents with repeated measurements for inference.

• Participant Observation and field studies use such methods.

• Cross Sectional Design provides a one-time snapshot of a situation at a specific time.

• Opinion polls and market surveys are examples of cross-sectional methods.

• Experimental Research Design involves manipulating inputs (situation, circumstances, or experiences) to study their effect on behaviour or outcomes.

• The goal is to establish causality between dependent and independent variables and test hypotheses.

• Participants are ideally randomly assigned, and extraneous variables are eliminated to ensure validity.

• Hawthorne Studies by Elton Mayo are classic examples.

• This method is associated with natural sciences, but in Sociology, modified experimental designs are used due to difficulty in having control groups.

• Mostly used for Positivist and quantitative research to minimize biases and prejudices.

• Experimental research studies how an independent variable affects a dependent variable.

• Due to high objectivity, the data obtained are more reliable.

• Factors affecting outcomes include sample representativeness, experimenter bias, and extraneous variables like temperature or noise.

• Limitations include the presence of many variables, some unknown initially (Merton’s latent functions).

• People may change behaviour in the presence of researchers (Hawthorne Effect).

• Ethical issues and privacy concerns complicate such experiments.

• Comparative Method compares social phenomena to draw generalised conclusions and is considered an alternative to experimental research.

• Based on real social life rather than artificially created situations.

• Early sociologists, especially Durkheim, emphasized it in The Rules of Sociological Method (1895).

• Durkheim’s study of suicide is a classic example.

• Marx, Weber, and Ginsberg also used this method.

• This method helps establish cause and effect relationships by studying phenomena in different contexts.

• Requires speculation since social phenomena are not uniform.

• Sometimes comparison of the whole society is needed to study a single phenomenon, which may reduce reliability.

• Hence, it is often limited to smaller institutions.

Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods

• Since there are multiple truths and multiple perspectives in Sociology, there are also multiple research methods.

• There is no single road to sociological truth and no point in arguing about the superiority or inferiority of methods.

• The important question is whether the method chosen is appropriate for the research question.

• To find out if most Indian families are still joint families, a census or survey is appropriate.

• To compare the status of women in joint and nuclear families, interviews, case studies, or Participant Observation may be used.

• Early sociologists emphasised Quantitative methods, guided by Positivist perspectives influenced by natural sciences.

• Quantitative methods involve systematic, scientific investigation of quantitative properties to develop theories and create a quantifiable image of reality.

• Positivists and Functionalists use this method more often.

• Durkheim pioneered quantitative research through his theory of suicide.

• Measurement is central, providing a connection between empirical observation and quantitative relationships.

• The primary aim is measurable data collection.

• Quantitative data can be represented through tables, graphs, pie-charts, histograms, and other curves.

• Drawbacks include that only simple questions can be asked, and no insight is gained into the logic or arguments used in answering.

• Types of Quantitative Methods include Statistics, Comparative Methods, Multivariate Analysis, Surveys, Structured Interviews, Close-ended Questionnaires, and Sampling.

• Qualitative Methods involve examination, analysis, and interpretation of observations to discover meanings and patterns of relationships.

• They emerged as a reaction to the overemphasis on quantitative methods, which were seen as unsuitable for understanding social reality.

• Qualitative methods help in understanding symbols, motives, meanings, and patterns.

• Favoured by Interpretivists and Non-Positivists.

• Weber pioneered the Interpretivist approach using Verstehen and Ideal Types.

• Mead pioneered Symbolic Interactionism.

• Assumption: Human beings have subjective consciousness, which is non-measurable through quantitative methods.

• Types of Qualitative Methods include Observation Method, Unstructured Interview, Case Studies, and Focus Group Discussion.

• Attempts were made to reconcile differences by creating mixed methods.

• Examples include Sociologic by Michael Mann in the 1980s and Triangulation Method by Norman K. Denzin.

• Mixed methods combine the best of quantitative and qualitative approaches.

• Content analysis and semi-structured interviews are also classified under mixed methods.