Conceptualising Social Reality – Sociology – Solved PYQs of UGC NET

5. Inter-disciplinary research in human sciences results from (JUNE 2020)

(A) Similar and diverse needs.

(B) Multiple and conflicting needs.

(C) Diverse and intra-related needs.

(D) Two separate but inter-related needs.

Correct Answer: (D) Two separate but inter-related needs.

The emergence of inter-disciplinary research within the realm of human sciences—which encompasses sociology, anthropology, psychology, economics, and political science—is driven by a dual intellectual necessity where specialized, distinct disciplinary boundaries must simultaneously intersect to solve complex human problems. Philosophers of science and methodologists of social inquiry isolate these two separate but deeply connected dimensions as the epistemological need for theoretical integration and the pragmatic need for comprehensive empirical problem-solving. While classical academic traditions during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries heavily incentivized hyper-specialization, creating rigid disciplinary silos, the multifaceted nature of human behavior and social systems exposed the limits of looking at social reality through a single, isolated lens. The first distinct need involves the internal evolution of academic theory itself, where researchers realize that understanding complex phenomena like subjective human experiences or macro-level structural changes requires adopting frameworks from neighboring fields. The second, interrelated need stems from external, real-world crises such as poverty, climate displacement, urban decay, and public health epidemics, which are inherently complex and cannot be addressed by any single discipline acting in isolation.

This methodological integration is a cornerstone of modern social theory, as seen in the work of thinkers who intentionally cross-examined the boundaries of their respective fields to build holistic explanatory systems. For instance, the Frankfurt School of critical theory successfully merged Marxian political economy with Freudian psychoanalysis to analyze the psychological basis of authoritarianism in advanced industrial societies. Similarly, the development of behavioral economics represents a deliberate blending of cognitive psychology with traditional economic models to better understand human decision-making under conditions of risk and uncertainty. In the field of sociology, researchers routinely utilize concepts from history and linguistics to map the evolution of cultural discourses, demonstrating how methodological pluralism enriches empirical research. By addressing the separate academic demand for theoretical rigor alongside the interrelated societal demand for practical, multi-layered policy interventions, inter-disciplinary research redefines the human sciences as an interconnected network of knowledge rather than a collection of isolated academic subjects.

6. Interdisciplinary collaboration sometimes involves (JUNE 2020)

(A) Adoption of different methods by discipline.
(B) Adoption of single method by diverse disciplines.
(C) Adoption of common method by related disciplines.
(D) Adoption of cross-method by one discipline.

Correct Answer: (C) Adoption of common method by related disciplines.

Interdisciplinary collaboration refers to the process in which scholars from different but related disciplines work together to address a common research problem. Such collaboration often involves the sharing of concepts, theories, techniques, and research strategies. One important feature of interdisciplinary work is the adoption of common methods by related disciplines, enabling researchers to study a phenomenon from multiple perspectives while maintaining methodological compatibility.

Many disciplines within the social sciences and human sciences examine overlapping aspects of human life and society. For instance, sociology, anthropology, political science, psychology, and economics frequently investigate issues such as social change, development, inequality, education, health, and human behavior. Since these subjects are interconnected, researchers often employ common methods such as surveys, interviews, observation, case studies, statistical analysis, and comparative research. The use of shared methodologies facilitates cooperation among scholars and helps integrate findings across disciplinary boundaries.

The adoption of a common method does not mean that disciplines lose their unique perspectives. Each discipline may interpret data differently according to its theoretical framework and research objectives. A sociologist and a psychologist may both use survey research, but the sociologist may focus on social structures and group dynamics, while the psychologist may concentrate on individual attitudes and cognitive processes. The shared method serves as a bridge that promotes collaboration and enhances the comprehensiveness of research.

Option (A) is not the best answer because interdisciplinary collaboration seeks integration rather than emphasizing separate methods for each discipline. Option (B) is too broad and suggests that diverse disciplines universally adopt a single method, which is not always the case. Option (D) focuses on one discipline borrowing methods from another, which is more closely related to methodological borrowing than collaborative interdisciplinary research.

Contemporary research increasingly relies on interdisciplinary approaches because complex social issues rarely fit within the boundaries of a single discipline. The use of common research methods among related disciplines supports data sharing, comparative analysis, and the development of broader explanations for social phenomena, making interdisciplinary collaboration a significant feature of modern academic inquiry.

7. The difficulties in analytical integration are due to (JUNE 2020)

(A) Social sciences having no linear order.
(B) Social sciences have pure experimental method.
(C) Social sciences are simpler in nature.
(D) Social sciences have more standardization.

Correct Answer: (A) Social sciences having no linear order.

Analytical integration refers to the process of combining concepts, theories, methods, and findings from different disciplines to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon. In the social sciences, this process often becomes difficult because the disciplines do not follow a linear order of development, organization, or explanation. Unlike many natural sciences, where knowledge may build systematically upon clearly defined principles, social sciences deal with complex human behavior, social structures, institutions, values, and cultural contexts that are interconnected in multiple ways.

The absence of a linear order means that disciplines such as sociology, anthropology, political science, economics, psychology, and history often approach the same issue from different theoretical perspectives and methodological traditions. Each discipline develops its own concepts, assumptions, and analytical frameworks. As a result, integrating these diverse approaches into a single analytical structure can be challenging. A social problem such as poverty, for example, may be interpreted economically in terms of income and resources, sociologically in terms of social stratification, politically in terms of policy decisions, and psychologically in terms of individual behavior and motivation.

Option (B) is incorrect because social sciences generally do not rely on a pure experimental method in the same way as many natural sciences. While experiments are used in certain areas, social science research employs a wide variety of methods, including surveys, interviews, observation, case studies, and comparative analysis. Option (C) is also incorrect because social sciences are not simpler in nature; they are often considered highly complex due to the dynamic and unpredictable character of human behavior and social relationships. Option (D) is incorrect because social sciences are characterized by methodological and theoretical diversity rather than excessive standardization.

The challenge of analytical integration arises from the multidimensional nature of social reality. Different disciplines often focus on different levels of analysis, ranging from individuals and groups to institutions and entire societies. This diversity enriches the understanding of social phenomena but also creates obstacles when researchers attempt to merge findings and perspectives into a unified analytical framework. The lack of a fixed linear structure among the social sciences remains a significant factor influencing interdisciplinary research and theoretical integration.

8. What is the common tendency among some social sciences? (JUNE 2020)

(A) To expand explanation of diverse phenomena to multiple perspectives.
(B) To expand explanation of one phenomenon to multiple perspectives.
(C) To reduce explanations of diverse phenomena to one perspective.
(D) None of the above.

Correct Answer: (C) To reduce explanations of diverse phenomena to one perspective.

A common tendency found in some social sciences is the effort to explain a wide range of social phenomena through a single dominant perspective or theoretical framework. This tendency is known as reductionism, where complex and diverse aspects of social life are interpreted primarily through one explanatory principle. Researchers or theorists working within a particular discipline may attempt to extend the explanatory power of their preferred perspective to many different social issues, even when those issues involve multiple dimensions and causes.

For example, some economic theories may explain a variety of human actions mainly in terms of economic interests and rational choices. Certain psychological approaches may emphasize individual motivations and mental processes as the primary explanation for social behavior. Similarly, some versions of Marxist theory focus heavily on economic structures and class relations as the central factors shaping social institutions, politics, culture, and ideology. In each case, diverse social phenomena are interpreted through a single analytical lens.

This tendency emerges because scholars often seek theoretical simplicity, coherence, and generality. A unified explanation can make complex social realities easier to understand and analyze. At the same time, excessive reliance on one perspective may overlook other important factors such as culture, history, politics, social norms, institutions, gender relations, or individual agency. Social reality is often multidimensional, and no single perspective can fully explain all aspects of human behavior and social organization.

Option (A) and Option (B) describe approaches that encourage multiple perspectives and broader interpretations, which are more closely associated with interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary research traditions. While such approaches have become increasingly important in contemporary social science, the question asks about a common tendency found in some social sciences, particularly the tendency toward reductionist explanations. Option (D) is incorrect because Option (C) accurately identifies this characteristic.

The debate between reductionism and pluralism has been an important theme in social science methodology. Many contemporary scholars advocate combining different theoretical perspectives to achieve a richer understanding of social phenomena, while recognizing that earlier disciplinary traditions often sought to explain diverse aspects of society through a single dominant framework.

9. ‘Sociological imperialism’ is associated with (JUNE 2020)

(A) Generalization of fact universally.
(B) Social sciences are prejudiced.
(C) Sociological reductionism.
(D) Sociologists align with other social sciences.

Correct Answer: (C) Sociological reductionism.

The concept of ‘Sociological imperialism’ refers to the tendency of sociology to extend its concepts, theories, and methods beyond its traditional boundaries and explain a wide variety of human phenomena primarily in sociological terms. This tendency is closely associated with sociological reductionism, where complex issues are interpreted mainly through social factors while giving limited attention to explanations offered by other disciplines such as psychology, economics, biology, political science, or anthropology.

Reductionism in sociology occurs when social structures, institutions, norms, values, and group processes are treated as the dominant or sole causes of human behavior and social events. In such cases, explanations originating from other fields may be overlooked or considered less significant. The term “imperialism” is used metaphorically to describe the expansion of sociological explanations into areas traditionally studied by other disciplines, claiming broader explanatory authority over diverse phenomena.

For example, a sociological reductionist approach might explain individual actions entirely in terms of socialization, class position, social norms, or institutional influences, while paying little attention to psychological motivations or biological factors. Although social factors are undeniably important, many contemporary scholars argue that human behavior is shaped by multiple interacting influences and cannot be adequately understood through a single disciplinary perspective.

Option (A) is incorrect because sociological imperialism is not primarily concerned with universal generalization of facts. Option (B) is also incorrect because the concept does not imply that social sciences are inherently prejudiced. Option (D) is the opposite of sociological imperialism, as alignment with other social sciences reflects interdisciplinary cooperation rather than the expansion of one discipline’s explanatory dominance over others.

The debate surrounding sociological imperialism has contributed to the growth of interdisciplinary research, which encourages the integration of insights from multiple disciplines. Contemporary social science increasingly recognizes that social phenomena are multidimensional and often require combined sociological, psychological, economic, political, cultural, and historical perspectives for a more comprehensive understanding.

10. Arrange various sciences in a hierarchy from complex to simple as provided by Auguste Comte: (JUNE 2023)

(a) Physics
(b) Biology
(c) Astronomy
(d) Chemistry
(e) Sociology

Choose the correct answer from the options given below:

(A) (a), (c), (e), (b), (d)
(B) (e), (b), (c), (a), (d)
(C) (c), (b), (e), (d), (a)
(D) (e), (b), (d), (a), (c)

Correct Answer: (D) (e), (b), (d), (a), (c)

Auguste Comte, the founder of Positivism and one of the pioneers of sociology, proposed the Hierarchy of Sciences to explain the logical development of scientific knowledge. According to Comte, sciences can be arranged in an order based on their degree of complexity and dependence upon one another. The more complex sciences emerge later and rely upon the knowledge accumulated by the simpler sciences.

Comte’s complete hierarchy, arranged from the simplest to the most complex, is Mathematics → Astronomy → Physics → Chemistry → Biology → Sociology. In this sequence, mathematics provides the fundamental tools for all scientific inquiry. Astronomy studies the simplest observable phenomena in the universe. Physics examines the laws of matter and energy, while chemistry deals with the composition and transformation of substances. Biology studies living organisms, which are more complex than physical and chemical systems. Sociology occupies the highest position because it studies human society, social relationships, institutions, and collective behavior, which represent the most complex form of observable reality.

The question asks for the arrangement from complex to simple. Reversing Comte’s order and considering only the sciences listed in the question gives the sequence: Sociology → Biology → Chemistry → Physics → Astronomy. Using the symbols provided, this becomes (e), (b), (d), (a), (c), which corresponds to Option (D).

Comte believed that each higher science depends upon the principles and discoveries of the sciences below it. Sociology, for example, requires an understanding of biological processes because human beings are living organisms, while biology itself depends upon chemical and physical laws. This hierarchical arrangement reflected Comte’s broader objective of establishing sociology as a rigorous scientific discipline capable of studying society through empirical observation and scientific reasoning. The theory of the hierarchy of sciences remains one of the most influential contributions to the development of classical sociological thought and the positivist tradition.

11. One of the main characteristics of theories in Modern Science is (DEC 2023)

(A) A theory is considered as a final explanation.
(B) A theory is always held with some tentativeness.
(C) A theory is just a hypothesis.
(D) A theory is a description of facts.

Correct Answer: (B) A theory is always held with some tentativeness.

In modern science, one of the most important characteristics of a theory is that it is held with a degree of tentativeness. Scientific theories are regarded as the best available explanations of observed phenomena based on existing evidence, but they are never treated as absolutely final or beyond revision. As new evidence emerges, theories may be refined, modified, expanded, or even replaced by more comprehensive explanations. This openness to revision is a defining feature of the scientific method and distinguishes scientific knowledge from dogmatic or unquestionable beliefs.

A scientific theory is much more than a simple guess or assumption. It is a systematically organized set of concepts, propositions, and explanations that have been tested through observation, experimentation, and empirical verification. Theories help researchers understand relationships between variables, predict future events, and explain patterns found in nature and society. Despite their strong evidential support, scientific theories remain provisional because knowledge is constantly developing through ongoing research and critical examination.

The idea of tentativeness is closely associated with the philosophy of science. Thinkers such as Karl Popper emphasized that scientific theories must be open to falsification, meaning they should be capable of being tested and potentially disproved by evidence. A theory that cannot be questioned or tested falls outside the realm of scientific inquiry. This principle encourages continuous scrutiny and improvement of scientific explanations.

Option (A) is incorrect because modern science does not regard any theory as a final explanation. Scientific knowledge remains open to revision. Option (C) is incorrect because a theory is not merely a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a tentative proposition that can be tested, whereas a theory is a broader explanatory framework supported by substantial evidence. Option (D) is also incorrect because a theory does more than describe facts; it explains why and how facts are related and provides a framework for understanding observed phenomena.

Examples from the history of science illustrate this characteristic clearly. Earlier theories in physics, biology, and social science have often been revised or expanded in light of new discoveries and evidence. This continuing process of testing, criticism, and refinement ensures that scientific theories remain dynamic and adaptable, making tentativeness a fundamental characteristic of modern scientific knowledge.