Formulating Research Design – Solved PYQs of Sociology – UGC NET

Reading Social Science Research, Data and Documents

1. Which of the following is associated with Descriptive Design? (JUNE 2012)

(A) Analysis of Demographic Trends
(B) Impact assessment of development intervention
(C) Causal explanation of violence against women
(D) Cross-cultural study

Correct Answer: (A) Analysis of Demographic Trends

Descriptive Design is a research design that focuses on describing the characteristics, patterns, conditions, or situations of a population, group, or phenomenon as it exists. Its primary purpose is to provide an accurate picture of social reality without attempting to establish cause-and-effect relationships. Descriptive research answers questions related to what, who, when, where, and how much, rather than explaining why something occurs.

Analysis of Demographic Trends is a classic example of descriptive research because it involves the systematic examination of population characteristics such as age, sex, literacy, birth rates, death rates, migration patterns, and population growth. Researchers collect and analyze data to describe existing demographic conditions and identify patterns over time. The emphasis remains on portraying and documenting social facts rather than determining causal relationships.

Option (B), Impact assessment of development intervention, is generally associated with evaluative research design, as it seeks to determine the effectiveness and outcomes of a specific program or intervention. Option (C), Causal explanation of violence against women, belongs to explanatory research design, which aims to identify causes and relationships among variables. Option (D), Cross-cultural study, is more commonly considered a comparative research approach because it compares social phenomena across different cultures or societies.

In social science research, descriptive designs frequently employ methods such as surveys, census studies, observation, and secondary data analysis. Studies conducted by organizations like national statistical agencies often use descriptive designs to present demographic profiles, employment statistics, literacy rates, and other population characteristics that help researchers, planners, and policymakers understand social conditions.

2. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer from the codes given below: (DEC 2012)

List-I (Type of Research Design) | List-II (Nature of Research Question)
(a) Exploratory — (i) Why is it?
(b) Experimental — (ii) What is it?
(c) Descriptive — (iii) How to treat it?
(d) Diagnostic — (iv) How is it?

Codes:

A. a – iv, b – iii, c – ii, d – i

B. a – i, b – iv, c – iv, d – iii

C. a – ii, b – i, c – iv, d – iii

D. a – i, b – ii, c – iii, d – iv

Correct Answer: C. a – ii, b – i, c – iv, d – iii

The correct matching is Exploratory – What is it?, Experimental – Why is it?, Descriptive – How is it?, and Diagnostic – How to treat it?. This combination corresponds to Option C.

Exploratory Research Design is used when a problem or phenomenon is not clearly understood and the researcher seeks preliminary insights. Its main objective is to explore a subject, identify key variables, generate ideas, and formulate hypotheses for future investigation. The central question associated with exploratory research is “What is it?” because the researcher is attempting to understand the nature and dimensions of the phenomenon.

Experimental Research Design focuses on establishing cause-and-effect relationships. It involves manipulation of independent variables and observation of their effects on dependent variables under controlled conditions. Since experimental research aims to explain the causes behind an event or behavior, it addresses the question “Why is it?”. This design is widely used in scientific and social science studies where causal explanations are required.

Descriptive Research Design is concerned with presenting an accurate picture of a situation, group, event, or phenomenon. It describes characteristics, patterns, frequencies, and trends without attempting to determine causation. The question most closely linked with descriptive research is “How is it?”, as the researcher seeks to describe the existing state of affairs.

Diagnostic Research Design is undertaken to identify the causes of a problem and suggest possible remedies or solutions. It goes beyond mere description by examining factors responsible for a particular condition and exploring corrective measures. For this reason, the question associated with diagnostic research is “How to treat it?”. Diagnostic studies are frequently used in fields such as education, social work, public administration, and healthcare where problem-solving is an important objective.

In research methodology, these four designs represent different stages and purposes of inquiry. Exploratory research helps in understanding a problem, descriptive research provides a detailed account of its characteristics, experimental research explains causal relationships, and diagnostic research focuses on identifying solutions and corrective actions for existing problems.

3. In case of doing research which is the correct sequence? (DEC 2012)

(A) Formulation of the problem, data collection, hypothesis, analysis of data

(B) Data collection, hypothesis, formulation of the problem, analysis of data

(C) Formulation of problem, hypothesis, data collection, analysis of data

(D) Hypothesis, analysis of data, formulation of the problem, data collection

Correct Answer: (C) Formulation of problem, hypothesis, data collection, analysis of data

Research is a systematic and organized process of generating knowledge through scientific investigation. To ensure accuracy and logical consistency, research follows a specific sequence of steps. The process begins with the formulation of the problem, where the researcher identifies and clearly defines the issue or phenomenon to be studied. A well-defined problem provides direction to the entire research project and helps determine the objectives, scope, and methodology of the study.

After defining the problem, the researcher develops a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a tentative proposition or predictive statement about the relationship between variables that can be tested through empirical investigation. It serves as a guide for data collection and analysis by indicating what the researcher expects to find.

The next step is data collection, which involves gathering relevant information from primary or secondary sources using methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, experiments, questionnaires, or document analysis. The nature of the data collection process depends on the objectives of the study and the type of research design adopted.

Once sufficient data have been collected, the researcher proceeds to analysis of data. During this stage, the collected information is organized, classified, interpreted, and examined using appropriate qualitative or quantitative techniques. Data analysis helps in testing the hypothesis, identifying patterns and relationships, and deriving meaningful findings from the research.

This sequence reflects the standard logic of the scientific method, where a problem is first identified, a tentative explanation is proposed, evidence is gathered, and the evidence is then analyzed. Research methodology texts by scholars such as C.R. Kothari and P.V. Young emphasize that the orderly progression from problem formulation to hypothesis development, data collection, and data analysis forms the foundation of systematic social science research.

4. Who among the following is a proponent of dialectical approach to the study of Indian society? (JUNE 2013)

(A) M.N. Srinivas

(B) D.P. Mukherjee

(C) A. Beteille

(D) Y.B. Damle

Correct Answer: (B) D.P. Mukherjee

D.P. Mukherjee is widely recognized as the leading proponent of the dialectical approach in the study of Indian society. He emphasized the importance of understanding Indian social reality through the interaction of opposing forces, contradictions, and historical processes. Influenced by Marxian dialectics, yet deeply rooted in Indian cultural traditions, Mukherjee argued that Indian society should not be studied merely through static structures or isolated social facts. Instead, it should be analyzed as a dynamic system shaped by continuous interaction between tradition and modernity, continuity and change, and individual and society.

According to D.P. Mukherjee, Indian society is characterized by a constant process of adjustment and synthesis between traditional institutions and modern influences. He believed that social change in India could be properly understood only through a historical and dialectical perspective that examines how conflicting social forces interact and produce new social realities. His writings highlighted the significance of cultural heritage, historical development, and social contradictions in shaping Indian society.

Option (A), M.N. Srinivas, is best known for concepts such as Sanskritization, Westernization, and Dominant Caste, and his work is largely associated with structural-functional analysis and empirical field studies. Option (C), A. Beteille, focused on social stratification, caste, class, and inequality, adopting a comparative sociological approach rather than a dialectical one. Option (D), Y.B. Damle contributed significantly to the study of Indian social structure and social change but is not identified as a major advocate of the dialectical method.

D.P. Mukherjee occupies a distinctive position in Indian sociology because he sought to develop an indigenous sociological perspective that combined insights from Marxism, historical analysis, and Indian philosophical traditions. His approach encouraged sociologists to examine Indian society as a living and evolving social system shaped by historical tensions, cultural interactions, and transformative social processes.

5. Which type of research aims to describe a social situation, social event, social system, social structure etc.? (JUNE 2013)

(A) Basic research

(B) Descriptive research

(C) Empirical research

(D) Explanatory research

Correct Answer: (B) Descriptive research

Descriptive research is specifically designed to provide an accurate and systematic description of a social situation, social event, social system, social institution, social structure, group, community, or population. Its primary objective is to present a detailed picture of existing conditions and social realities without attempting to manipulate variables or establish causal relationships. This type of research focuses on answering questions such as what exists, how it exists, who is involved, and what characteristics are present in a particular social context.

In sociology and other social sciences, descriptive research is widely used to study social phenomena such as family patterns, caste structures, educational systems, demographic characteristics, urbanization, migration, voting behavior, and occupational distribution. Researchers collect information through methods such as surveys, observations, case studies, census data, and questionnaires to describe the characteristics and patterns found within a population or social setting. The emphasis remains on careful observation, measurement, and presentation of facts rather than explanation of causes.

Option (A), Basic research, is primarily concerned with the development of knowledge, concepts, and theories without an immediate practical objective. Option (C), Empirical research, refers to research based on observation and experience and can include descriptive, explanatory, or experimental studies. It describes the source of evidence rather than a specific research purpose. Option (D), Explanatory research, seeks to identify causes, relationships, and reasons behind social phenomena and is more concerned with answering why something occurs rather than merely describing it.

Descriptive research occupies an important place in the research process because it often provides the foundational knowledge required for further analytical and explanatory studies. By documenting social facts, patterns, and characteristics in a systematic manner, it helps researchers, policymakers, and social planners gain a clear understanding of social realities and changing social conditions within a society.

6. Identify the correct sequence in social research: (JUNE 2013)

(i) Report writing

(ii) Data analysis

(iii) Pilot study

(iv) Formation of hypothesis

(v) Null hypothesis

(vi) Observation

Codes:

(A) (iv), (v), (iii), (vi), (ii), (i)

(B) (iii), (iv), (i), (ii), (vi), (v)

(C) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi)

(D) (vi), (v), (iv), (iii), (ii), (i)

Correct Answer: (A) (iv), (v), (iii), (vi), (ii), (i)

The process of social research follows a logical and systematic sequence that enables the researcher to collect reliable data and arrive at valid findings. Among the given options, the most appropriate order is Formation of hypothesis → Null hypothesis → Pilot study → Observation → Data analysis → Report writing.

The research process generally begins with the formation of a hypothesis, which is a tentative statement or prediction regarding the relationship between variables. A hypothesis provides direction to the study and guides the researcher in deciding what information needs to be collected. In quantitative research, researchers often formulate a corresponding null hypothesis, which assumes that no significant relationship or difference exists between the variables being studied. The null hypothesis serves as the basis for statistical testing and objective verification.

After developing the hypotheses, a pilot study is conducted. A pilot study is a small-scale preliminary investigation designed to test the feasibility of the research design, tools, questionnaires, schedules, and procedures. It helps identify weaknesses in the research plan and allows necessary modifications before the main study begins.

The next stage involves observation or actual data collection from the field. Observation may be direct or indirect and is one of the most important methods of gathering empirical information. The data obtained through observation and other research techniques form the basis for further examination.

Once data collection is completed, the researcher undertakes data analysis. During this stage, the collected information is organized, classified, tabulated, interpreted, and examined using appropriate statistical or qualitative techniques. Data analysis helps determine whether the evidence supports or rejects the hypothesis and reveals patterns, trends, and relationships within the data.

The final step is report writing, where the entire research process, methodology, findings, interpretations, and recommendations are systematically documented. A research report communicates the results to scholars, policymakers, institutions, and other interested readers. It serves as a permanent record of the investigation and contributes to the accumulation of scientific knowledge in the social sciences.

7. There are two statements, one is Assertion (A) and the other is Reason (R). (DEC 2013)

Assertion (A): Research design is a kind of blueprint that is prepared before actually carrying out a research.

Reason (R): Many research plans are unable to produce a concrete finding.

Codes:

(A) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)

(B) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)

(C) (A) is true, but (R) is false

(D) (A) is false, but (R) is true

Correct Answer: (B) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)

The Assertion (A) is true because a research design is commonly described as a blueprint, framework, or plan that guides the entire research process. It is prepared before the actual collection of data begins and specifies the objectives of the study, research questions, hypotheses, methods of data collection, sampling procedures, techniques of analysis, and overall strategy for conducting the investigation. Research methodology scholars such as C.R. Kothari have emphasized that research design serves as a detailed plan that helps the researcher obtain relevant information efficiently and systematically.

The Reason (R) is also true to a considerable extent because many research projects may fail to produce concrete or reliable findings when they suffer from weaknesses such as poor planning, inadequate sampling, inappropriate methods, lack of valid data, or flaws in execution. A poorly designed research plan can lead to ambiguous results and difficulties in drawing meaningful conclusions.

Even though both statements are true, the reason does not correctly explain the assertion. The assertion explains the nature and purpose of a research design as a blueprint prepared in advance, whereas the reason refers to a possible consequence of weak or ineffective research planning. The fact that some research plans fail to generate concrete findings is not the reason why a research design is called a blueprint. A research design is considered a blueprint because it provides a systematic structure and direction for conducting research, regardless of whether particular studies ultimately succeed or fail in producing definitive findings.

In research methodology, a well-constructed research design helps minimize bias, improves reliability and validity, ensures proper utilization of resources, and facilitates the collection of relevant data needed to address the research problem in a scientific manner.

8. A relationship in which change in one variable always induces change in another variable is known as: (DEC 2013)

(A) Positive correlation

(B) Linear correlation

(C) Unbounding relation

(D) Cause and effect relationship

Correct Answer: (D) Cause and effect relationship

A cause and effect relationship refers to a situation in which a change in one variable, known as the independent variable, directly produces or influences a change in another variable, known as the dependent variable. In research methodology, causation implies that one event or condition is responsible for bringing about another event or condition. When a change in one variable consistently induces a change in another, researchers interpret this as evidence of a causal connection rather than a mere association.

Option (A), positive correlation, indicates that two variables move in the same direction; when one increases, the other tends to increase as well. However, correlation only shows association and does not prove that one variable causes the other. Two variables may be positively correlated due to coincidence or because both are influenced by a third factor.

Option (B), linear correlation, describes a relationship in which changes between variables occur in a straight-line pattern. Like positive correlation, it reflects the form of association rather than causation. A linear relationship may exist without one variable being the cause of changes in the other.

Option (C), unbounding relation, is not a standard concept in social research methodology and does not represent a recognized type of relationship between variables.

Establishing a cause and effect relationship is one of the major goals of scientific research, particularly in experimental research designs. Researchers attempt to demonstrate causality by showing that the cause precedes the effect, that the variables are related, and that alternative explanations have been controlled or eliminated. For example, an increase in educational opportunities may lead to higher literacy rates, or a public health intervention may reduce the incidence of disease. Such relationships involve more than simple association because the change in one variable actively contributes to the change observed in another variable.

The distinction between correlation and causation is a fundamental principle in social science research, statistical analysis, and scientific inquiry, making causal relationships central to the explanation and prediction of social phenomena.

9. Research carried out in order to improve social situation for the betterment of individuals or social group or an organization is called: (DEC 2014)

(A) Survey Research

(B) Action Research

(C) Qualitative Research

(D) None of the above

Correct Answer: (B) Action Research

Action Research is a type of research that is conducted with the primary objective of solving immediate problems and improving existing social conditions. It is designed to bring about practical change and enhance the functioning of individuals, groups, communities, institutions, or organizations. Unlike purely theoretical research, action research focuses on addressing real-life issues and implementing solutions while simultaneously generating knowledge about the problem under investigation.

The concept of Action Research is closely associated with Kurt Lewin, who introduced it as a method that combines research and action in a continuous cycle. This approach typically involves identifying a problem, planning an intervention, implementing the proposed action, observing the outcomes, and evaluating the results. The findings are then used to make further improvements, creating an ongoing process of problem-solving and social change.

Option (A), Survey Research, is mainly concerned with collecting information from a population or sample to describe opinions, attitudes, behaviors, or characteristics. Although survey findings may help improve social conditions, the primary purpose of survey research is data collection and description rather than direct intervention. Option (C), Qualitative Research, focuses on understanding meanings, experiences, perceptions, and social processes through methods such as interviews, observations, and case studies. It is a methodological approach rather than a specific type of research aimed at immediate social improvement. Option (D), None of the above, is incorrect because action research precisely matches the description given in the question.

In fields such as education, social work, community development, public administration, healthcare, and organizational management, action research is widely used to address practical challenges and improve performance. Teachers may use action research to enhance classroom learning, social workers may apply it to improve community welfare programs, and organizations may employ it to increase efficiency and employee satisfaction. The distinguishing feature of action research is its commitment to both understanding social problems and actively working toward their resolution through systematic inquiry and informed action.

10. Which of the following Research Designs will be appropriate for studying voting behaviour of urban middle class population? (DEC 2014)

(A) Exploratory

(B) Descriptive

(C) Experimental

(D) None of the above

Correct Answer: (B) Descriptive

Descriptive Research Design is the most appropriate design for studying the voting behaviour of the urban middle-class population because its primary objective is to describe and analyze the characteristics, attitudes, preferences, opinions, and patterns of behavior of a particular group. Voting behaviour research generally seeks to understand how people vote, which political parties they support, what issues influence their decisions, and what demographic or social characteristics are associated with their electoral choices. Such studies focus on describing existing realities rather than manipulating variables or establishing strict causal relationships.

Descriptive research is widely used in political sociology, political science, and electoral studies. Researchers collect data through surveys, opinion polls, interviews, questionnaires, and field studies to obtain detailed information about voters’ preferences and attitudes. In the case of the urban middle class, a descriptive study may examine factors such as education, occupation, income, media exposure, political awareness, party identification, and voting patterns during elections. The purpose is to provide a systematic account of these characteristics and behaviors.

Option (A), Exploratory Research, is generally used when very little information is available about a topic and the researcher seeks preliminary insights. Voting behaviour has been extensively studied, making descriptive methods more suitable for documenting and analyzing existing patterns. Option (C), Experimental Research, involves manipulation and control of variables to establish cause-and-effect relationships. Such designs are difficult to apply to actual voting behaviour because electoral choices are influenced by numerous social, cultural, economic, and political factors that cannot easily be controlled in an experimental setting. Option (D), None of the above, is incorrect because descriptive research directly matches the objective of studying voting patterns and preferences.

The study of voting behaviour has been an important area of social research since the development of electoral sociology. Researchers often use descriptive designs to gather empirical data about voter participation, political attitudes, election trends, and demographic influences. Such studies contribute to understanding democratic processes, electoral dynamics, political representation, and the relationship between social groups and political institutions.