Group and Social Influence – Psychology – UGC NET – Notes

Group and Group Formation

The word ‘group’ has a variety of meanings. It refers to any aggregation of human beings, including pedestrians on the road or a gathering of people in any place. A structured group has certain characteristics. Group development refers to concerns about how groups form, their structures and processes, and how they function in different situations. There are mainly five stages of group development: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.

Forming is a stage characterized by confusion and uncertainty. It is an orientation period when members get to know one another and share expectations about the group.

Storming is the stage where one can see the highest level of disagreement and conflict. Members mainly voice concerns, and criticism is common in this stage.

Norming is characterized by recognition of individual differences and shared expectations. Responsibilities are divided among members, and the group decides how it will evaluate progress.

Performing occurs when the group has matured and attains a feeling of cohesiveness. In this stage, members make decisions through a rational process focused on relevant goals rather than emotional issues.

Adjourning indicates that members of the group often experience feelings of closure and sadness as they prepare to leave.

Thus, a group is a collection of individuals—two or more persons who interact with one another, share common goals, and recognize that they belong to a group. It must be remembered that no person can live in isolation because groups help satisfy important psychological needs and social needs. Different persons perform different tasks, and the group may choose a leader along with followers. There is a strong link among members, and interaction within the group is essential for the smooth functioning of its activities.

Development of Group

A very common question that is asked is why and how groups develop. There are several theories regarding group development. A classic theory, developed by George Homans, suggests that groups develop mainly on the basis of activities, interactions and sentiments. Basically, this theory indicates that when individuals share common activities, they will have more interaction and will develop attitudes (either positive or negative) toward each other. The main element is the interaction of the individuals involved.

Another important theory is social exchange theory, which offers an alternative explanation for group development. According to this theory, individuals form relationships on the basis of implicit expectation of mutually beneficial exchanges based on trust and ‘felt’ obligations. It is also perceived that exchange relationships have to be positive if persons are to be attracted to and affiliate with a group.

Besides this, another important theory is social identity theory, which explains group formation. This theory suggests that individuals get a sense of identity and self-esteem based on their membership in significant groups. The group is demographically, culturally, and organisationally based.

One of the most important activities that groups perform is decision-making. This is the process through which individuals or groups combine and integrate information from several possible actions. Most people believe that groups, by utilising the expertise and knowledge of their members and by avoiding extreme courses of action, usually reach better decisions than individuals acting alone.

When groups begin to discuss any issue, it is seen that their members generally express unanimous agreement. During the decision period, members convey a wide range of views. Generally, the social decision process happens in phases: the first phase is the discussion phase, which helps to confirm or strengthen the most popular view, which rarely gets reversed. The second phase leads to the correct situation or decision that ultimately emerges.

Besides the above, there are several aspects of group procedures, such as the rules followed in managing the group and interactions among members. Some individuals, especially those aware of the opinions of influential members, tend to join the majority and thereby tilt the decision in the required direction.

Group ‘as a whole’ Processes

This refers to those behaviours and dynamics that apply to the group as a distinct psychological construction. Cohesion is the most important factor in this process, especially in clinical, theoretical and empirical areas. While definitions of the term vary, cohesion generally refers to the emotional bonding among members of the group as well as a shared commitment to the group and its primary task.

Cohesion is often regarded as equivalent to the concept of therapeutic alliance in individual psychotherapy. It is the group process generally linked to positive therapeutic outcome. This cohesion can range from extreme states such as deindividuation, contagion, and groupthink at one end, to fragmentation, individuation, and the anti-group at the other extreme. In its extreme form, cohesion may divert the group from meaningful work.

Hence, there is a need for the leader to monitor the nature of emotional bonds and commitment among members and help the group attain a balance between relatedness and autonomy.

Beyond cohesion, the group as a whole can be perceived with both positive (e.g., engaging) and negative (e.g., conflictual) attributes. The leader must understand these attributes, as they can affect task accomplishment.

The group may be experienced positively as protective and supportive of growth, or negatively as overwhelming and hindering development. These contrasting images arise from shared projections within the group.

Other negative group processes may serve defensive and work-avoidant needs. In dependent groups, or groups showing confrontation or avoidance, members often develop anxiety. Such regressive processes must be addressed through interpretation or confrontation, allowing the group to move toward more task-oriented behaviour.

Splits and subgroups may form as members adopt an “us versus them” approach to cope with anxiety. These are defensive arrangements that can hinder group functioning and must be managed by the leader.

The pair or couple within a group may represent deeper psychological tensions or defensive processes, sometimes linked to emotional disturbances such as depression. These dynamics may be expressed through relationships within or outside the group and can affect group development.

The group leader or therapist must address these potentially destructive processes through careful exploration, interpretation, or confrontation to maintain healthy group functioning.

The Individual Member and Leader Roles:

In certain groups, there may be a scapegoat on whom all negative aspects are transferred. The formation of a scapegoat and other non-rational, restrictive roles such as the spokesperson, hero, and difficult member are prominent group phenomena. It is important to understand that these roles emerge not only from the needs and personalities of individuals but also from collusive enactments and co-constructions between the individual and the group.

Such unique roles are not always entirely negative or destructive. They may serve important group functions, including expressing the unspeakable, stirring emotions, revitalising the group, carrying unacceptable aspects of others, and even creating a sense of hope (Shields, 2000).

Social Facilitation

Social facilitation may be defined as the improvement in performance produced by the mere presence of others. It indicates that individuals perform the same task independently. The basic idea behind Zajonc’s drive theory of social facilitation is that the presence of others produces an increase in arousal.

Allport (1920) defined social facilitation as the improvement in performance produced by the mere presence of others, either as an audience or as co-actors (persons performing the same task independently). Some basic principles are as follows:

1. When arousal increases, the tendency to make dominant responses also increases.

2. Dominant responses may be correct or incorrect for any given task.

3. The presence of others will facilitate performance when an individual’s dominant responses are correct in a given situation (and hinder when incorrect).

4. Learning to perform a new task plays a significant role in this context.

5. Social facilitation is not always helpful; sometimes it can be misleading.

6. Individuals may believe that their performance is being observed and evaluated by others.

7. There are large individual differences with respect to group influence.

8. Evaluation apprehension plays an important role in social facilitation.

9. A good sense of understanding improves performance.

10. The mere presence of others increases arousal, but the possibility of evaluation strengthens the effect further.

11. When individuals have little reason to pay attention to others, social facilitation may not occur; when attention is high, it is more likely to occur.

12. Social facilitation is considered a simple form of group influence.

Drive Theory of Social Facilitation

The basic idea behind Zajonc’s drive theory of social facilitation is that the presence of others produces increments in arousal, which in turn affect performance. Thus, it can be said that the presence of others will facilitate performance when a person’s dominant responses are correct in a given situation, but will impair performance when those dominant responses are incorrect.

When individuals have little reason to pay attention to others present on the scene, social facilitation may fail to occur; however, when there is a strong reason for attention to others, social facilitation is more likely to occur.