TOPIC INFO (UGC NET)
TOPIC INFO – UGC NET (Psychology)
SUB-TOPIC INFO – Human Development and Interventions (UNIT 9)
CONTENT TYPE – Detailed Notes
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1. Psychodynamic Theories of Development
1.1. Sigmund Freud’s Theory
1.2. Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory (1902-1994)
2. Humanistic Theories
2.1. Abraham Maslow’s Theory
2.2. Carl Roger’s Theory
3. Behaviouristic Theories
3.1. Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Theory
3.2. B. Frederick Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory
4. Cognitive Theory
4.1. Jean Piaget’s Theory
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Theories of Development
UGC NET PSYCHOLOGY
Human Development and Interventions (UNIT 9)
Psychodynamic Theories of Development
Psychodynamics, also known as dynamic psychology, is the study of the interrelationship of various parts of the mind, personality, or psyche as they relate to mental, emotional, or motivational forces, especially at the unconscious level.
Sigmund Freud’s Theory
The proponent of this theory is Sigmund Freud, who believed that human behaviour is brought about by inner forces over which the individual has little control. He was of the view that both conscious and unconscious forces influence the personality of an individual.
The Structure of Personality: Freud likens the human mind to an iceberg analogy. In terms of the thoughts and impulses in our minds, we are only aware of the “tip of the iceberg.” He put forward three constituents of personality: the id, the ego, and the superego.
The Id: Id refers to the raw, unorganised, inherited part whose main goal is to reduce tension created by our primitive drives such as hunger, thirst, sex, aggression, etc. Id operates on the pleasure principle, in which its goal is immediate gratification of needs and reduction of tension.
The Ego: This is the “I” of the personality. An executive that develops as the child interacts with the world. It acts as a buffer between the id and reality. The ego’s job is to meet the needs of the id while considering reality. It is responsible for higher cognitive functions such as intelligence, thoughtfulness, and learning.
The Superego: This is the moral arm of personality. It represents the rights and wrongs of society. It has two subparts: the conscience and the ego-ideal. The conscience prevents morally wrong actions, while the ego-ideal motivates ideal behaviour. The superego helps control the id’s impulses, making them more morally appropriate.
Topographical Model: Freud believed that most of our experiences, including emotions, beliefs, and impulses, are not available at the conscious level. He introduced the concepts of the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind.
There are explained below:
Conscious: The conscious mind includes everything that is in our awareness. This is that aspect of our mental processing which we can think and talk about in a rational way. Example: consciously we know we have to go for a painful test. But we forget the appointment on that day when we have to go for test. The former is conscious the latter is unconscious.
Unconscious: A reservoir of unacceptable or unpleasant feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that lie outside of our conscious awareness.
Preconscious: This is not in our active conscious but can be accessed if prompted. Example: our old telephone number, some childhood memories, etc., which are stored in the preconscious.
Defense Mechanisms: When the ego is threatened by unconscious impulses, it employs defense mechanisms to protect the conscious self. These are called Ego Defense Mechanisms or defenses. When the ego has difficulty balancing both the id and the superego, it uses one or more of these defenses.
| DEFENSE | DESCRIPTION | EXAMPLE |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Denial | Arguing against an anxiety provoking stimuli by stating that it doesn’t exist | Denying that your physician’s diagnosis of cancer is incorrect and seeking a second opinion |
| 2. Displacement | Passing on the impulses on a less threatening target | Slamming a door instead of hitting a person. Yelling at spouse after an argument with the boss |
| 3. Intellectualisation | Avoiding unacceptable emotions by focusing on the intellectual aspects | Focusing on the details of the funeral arrangements as opposed to the sadness and grief |
| 4. Projection | Passing off the unacceptable impulses in withinself onto someone else | When a person indulges in promiscuous relationship and feels guilty, states that the other person is preconscious. |
| 5. Rationalisation | Supplying a logical or rational reason as opposed to the real reason | Stating that you were fired because you didn’t kiss the boss, when the real reason was your poor performance |
| 6. Reaction formation | Taking the opposite belief because the true belief causes anxiety | Having a bias against a particular race or culture and then embracing that race or culture to the extreme |
| 7. Regression | Returning to a previous stage of development | A child who is toilet trained starts wetting the bed after new sibling arrival. |
| 8. Repression | Pushing things into the conscious. | Forgetting sexual abuse from ends childhood due to the trauma and anxiety, cured. |
| 9. Sublimation | Acting out unacceptable impulses in a socially acceptable way | Sublimating one’s your aggressive impulses toward a career as a boxer. Becoming a surgeon because of one’s desire to cut. Lifting weights to release ‘pent up’ energy |
Apart from the defense mechanisms, another important part of personality development is the manner in which it unfolds.
Psychosexual Stages of Development
There are in all five stages of development:
1) Oral Stage (Birth–18 Months):
Sexual gratification is obtained through oral activities. If a child is not sufficiently nourished, he or she may develop fixation at this stage. Fixation may lead to behaviours like smoking, alcohol abuse, nail biting, or excessive optimism/pessimism.
2) Anal Stage (18–36 Months):
Sexual gratification is obtained through control of elimination. Fixation may lead to anal-retentive (overly neat, rigid) or anal-expulsive (disorganised, careless) personality traits.
3) Phallic Stage (3–6 Years):
Libidinal energy is focused on the phallic region.
- Oedipus complex: A boy’s unconscious desire for his mother and rivalry with his father.
- Electra complex: A girl’s unconscious desire for her father and resentment toward her mother.
4) Latency Stage (6 Years–Puberty):
Sexual urges are repressed, and children enter a period of latency where impulses remain largely unconscious.
5) Genital Stage (Puberty–Adulthood):
The mature stage of development, where sexual energy is expressed in adult relationships.
- Libido: The psychic energy generated by sexual instincts.
- Fixation: A halt in psychosexual development at a particular stage.
- Reaction Formation: A defense mechanism where a person behaves in a way opposite to their true desires.