Electoral System

Introduction

• The electoral system refers to the set of rules through which people choose their representatives or political leaders.

• It determines the outcome of elections by providing the election mechanism and process for determining the representation of various political parties in the legislature.

• Electoral systems operate not only at the national level but also at the local level, influencing the composition of local bodies.

• It is the deciding factor for the formation of coalitions, party strategies, and election manifestoes of political groups, parties, or individuals.

• The electoral system is dynamic, evolving continuously to meet the needs of the political system of a country.

• A well-defined electoral system helps facilitate a true democratic culture.

• Bernard Groffman identifies six basic components of an electoral system:

  • 1. Eligibility for contesting elections (individuals, parties, or combinations).

    2. Rules within the party for selecting candidates or ranking them in the party list.

    3. Specification of the ballot type.

    4. Specification of constituencies (districts).

    5. Election timing.

    6. Rules for ballot aggregation.

• The term electoral system also refers to rules regarding voters, campaigning, advertising, election phases, etc.

• According to Rae (1971), electoral systems have three dimensions: ballot structure, district structure, and electoral formula.

• Ballot structure defines the nature of the ballot system and the different ways votes are cast and counted:

  • Whether votes are cast for individuals, party lists, or a combination of both.

  • How many votes are cast for candidates and/or lists.

  • Whether more than one vote is cast based on preference or rank of candidates/lists.

  • Whether there is a single round or multiple rounds of voting.

• District structure refers to the area, number, and hierarchy of electoral districts:

  • Electoral districts are the areas where elections are held.

  • These districts can be single-seated or multi-seated.

  • The entire country may be a national electoral district or be divided into several smaller constituencies.

  • There may be a hierarchy of tiers in district structures (e.g., upper and lower tiers).

• Electoral formula refers to the process of transforming votes into seats.

  • Popular electoral formulas include plurality, majority, and proportional representation (PR) systems.

  • The formulas may vary depending on the district structure.

Classification of Electoral Systems

• Electoral systems are classified into three categories based on the rules for converting votes into seats in the legislature: Majoritarian system, Proportional Representation (PR) system, and Mixed system.

• Majoritarian system: Larger parties get to represent a higher number of seats, often leading to two-party systems or single-party governments.

• In the Majoritarian system, a party getting only 30% of votes may emerge as the ruling party, leading to discrepancies in seat allocation.

• Example: In the 2010 U.K. elections, the Conservative Party won 47% of seats with only 36% of the votes, while the Liberal Democratic Party won 9% of seats with 29% of the votes.

• Majoritarian system often results in disparities, as seats are not allocated proportionally to the votes.

• It can lead to situations where a party with only two-fifths of the votes gains political power, which might affect the efficacy of the government and political system.

• Proportional Representation (PR) system: Seats are allocated in proportion to the percentage of votes each party gets.

• In a PR system, a party getting 40% of votes will get 40% of the total legislative seats, reducing the chances of single-party rule.

• PR systems often lead to multiparty systems and coalition governments, providing a better representative system and a more effective political system.

• Governments formed under the PR system are often more popular and better at managing the popular mandate than those in the Majoritarian system.

• Mixed systems combine elements of both the PR system and Majoritarian system to take advantage of both.

• There are several different arrangements of Majoritarian, Proportional Representation, and Mixed systems designed by countries to suit their own political culture.

Majoritarian Systems

Single-Member Plurality Systems

• Single Member Plurality (SMP) system: The person/party holding the maximum number of votes wins.

• This system is popular in the UK, USA, Canada, India, and other countries with political systems derived from the British colonial past.

• The entire area is divided into single-member constituencies of roughly equal size.

• Voters cast their votes for a single candidate to represent their constituency.

• Also called the First Past the Post System.

• In this system, a candidate with the highest number of votes wins, even if they have a minority of the total votes.

• Example: If five candidates get 32, 25, 14, 18, and 11 votes out of 100, the winner is the one with 32 votes, despite 68 votes not favoring them.

• A major drawback of this system is the wastage of votes and the underrepresentation of smaller political parties.

• Critics argue that it undermines the essence of a healthy democracy by diluting the impact of smaller groups and political parties.

• The legitimacy of governments can be questioned, as the elected candidate usually has only minority support.

• The system may result in an unaccountable government, as the winner is decided by a simple majority, which may not reflect the majority of the population’s choice.

• Despite limitations, the system has several advantages:

  • Governments formed under this system claim a clear mandate from the electorate, even with a simple majority.

  • Helps prevent radical groups or extremism from gaining strength in the political system.

  • The provision of multiple single-member constituencies ensures that all parts of the country get adequate representation in the national legislature.

  • Provides voters with ample choices of candidates, strengthening the democratic element by allowing various criteria for choosing representatives.

Second-Ballot System

• The Second-Ballot system addresses the major shortcomings of the SMP system by ensuring the winner has an absolute majority rather than just a simple majority.

• This system is used in France, Chile, Austria, and Russia.

• Like the SMP system, the country is divided into single-member constituencies, and voters cast a single-choice vote for candidates.

• However, the system includes two rounds of voting:

  • In the first round, voters choose from all candidates.

  • The second round is held between the top two candidates from the first round.

• This format ensures that the winner has an absolute majority of votes.

• The system is also called the Mixed Majority-Plurality system.

• It is used in the USA for internal elections by political parties to select leadership and presidential candidates.

• Voting continues until a candidate reaches an absolute majority.

• Despite addressing the SMP system’s drawback, the Second-Ballot system still has limitations:

  • Larger parties are more likely to secure the top two positions, leaving smaller parties and individual candidates with limited opportunities.

  • The system may encourage candidates to focus on popularity over party principles, leading to unstable or corrupt contenders reaching the top positions.

  • Holding two elections increases costs for the country’s treasury and strains the electorate’s patience.

• Despite these drawbacks, the Second-Ballot system ensures that the elected candidate has the consent of most of the population and is more widely accepted.

• It provides voters with ample choices in the first round and preferential choice in the second round, leading to greater satisfaction with the election outcomes.

• The legitimacy of the elected candidate is unquestioned, resulting in a strong and stable governance system compared to the SMP system.

Alternative-Vote / Supplementary Vote System

• The Alternative Vote (AV) method addresses the SMP system’s criticism regarding the lack of an absolute majority for the winning candidate.

• It is generally used in internal elections and not for national leadership.

• Example: The House of Representatives election in Australia uses the AV method, and the Mayor election in London, UK uses the Supplementary Vote (SV) method, a variant of the AV method.

• Both AV and SV methods are based on the same principles but differ in details.

• In both systems, there are single-member constituencies, and electors cast multiple votes based on their preferences.

• Voters rank candidates according to their choices, with the first preference being the main vote, and the other ranks as alternative or supplementary votes.

• In the AV system, electors rank all candidates, while in the SV system, only the top two candidates are ranked.

• AV system: Voters rank candidates from 1 to 7 (if 7 candidates are contesting).

• SV system: Voters rank only their topmost favorite (1st preference) and second most favorite (2nd preference).

• Votes are counted based on first preferences, and candidates with the least votes are eliminated. Their votes are redistributed based on second preferences until a candidate achieves an absolute majority.

• AV system: Elimination and redistribution of votes occur multiple times until a winner emerges.

• SV system: The top two candidates are decided in the first round, and the second round determines the winner.

• The AV/SV system is a detailed and complex process, but it tends to result in a single-party or two-party system, with larger parties overshadowing smaller parties and individual candidates.

• A major criticism is that preferential counting may result in a winner having fewer first preference votes but still being chosen to govern, similar to the SMP system.

• Despite criticisms, the AV/SV system ensures fewer votes are wasted and a candidate’s popularity and acceptance are determined by preferential votes.

• Known as the Limited Vote Plan or Approval Voting.

• Adopted in parliamentary elections in 1990 in several Eastern European countries (e.g., Belarus, Ukraine).

• The main goal is to ensure the winning candidate secures an absolute majority (at least 50% of the votes).

Condorcet Method

• The Condorcet method is named after its founder, Marquis de Condorcet, a French mathematician.

• This method is more complex than previous systems like AV.

• It follows a similar principle to AV but requires voters to rank candidates in pairwise comparison.

• For example, with 3 candidates (X, Y, Z), voters vote on pairs: XY, YZ, and XZ, deciding which candidate they prefer in each pair.

• The candidate who wins the most pairwise comparisons is declared the winner.

• The Condorcet method may seem fairer and more accurate for deciding representation, but its complexity limits its widespread use.

• In elections with a large number of candidates, it becomes difficult for voters to evaluate and compare all possible pairs.