Alternative Frameworks in Normative Ethics – CUET PG Philosophy – Notes

Introduction

Normative ethics seeks to establish principles and standards for what is morally right and wrong. While classical theories like deontology and consequentialism focus on the rightness of actions based on duties or outcomes, alternative frameworks have emerged that challenge these perspectives. These alternatives shift the focus to different aspects of the moral life, such as the character of the moral agent, the basis of political and moral obligation in mutual agreement, or the role of relationships and care. This chapter explores three prominent alternative frameworks: virtue ethics, social contract theory, and care ethics.

Virtue Ethics

Virtue ethics represents a fundamental shift in the central question of moral philosophy. Instead of asking, “What is the right action to perform?”, virtue ethics asks, “What kind of person should I be?” or “What constitutes a good life?”. It is a character-centered approach to morality, emphasizing virtues, or moral character, in contrast to the action-centered approaches of deontology (which emphasizes duties or rules) and consequentialism (which emphasizes the consequences of actions).

Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics: The Pursuit of Eudaimonia

The most influential account of virtue ethics comes from the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle in his work, Nicomachean Ethics. For Aristotle, all human activities aim at some good, and the ultimate good, the final end for which all else is done, is Eudaimonia.

• Telos and Eudaimonia: Telos is a Greek term meaning end, purpose, or goal. Aristotle believed that everything in nature has a telos. The telos of a knife is to cut; the telos of an eye is to see. The telos of a human being is Eudaimonia. This term is often translated as ‘happiness’, but this can be misleading. It is not a fleeting feeling of pleasure but rather a state of ‘human flourishing’ or ‘living well and doing well’. It is an objective state of being, an activity of the soul that reflects the best and most complete life for a human.
• The Function Argument (Ergon Argument): To understand Eudaimonia, Aristotle asks what the unique function (ergon) of a human being is. It is not mere survival, which we share with plants, nor sensation, which we share with animals. The unique function of humans is our capacity for reason (logos). Therefore, Aristotle concludes that the human good (Eudaimonia) is the activity of the soul in accordance with virtue (arête), and if there is more than one virtue, in accordance with the best and most complete. In essence, to flourish is to exercise our reason excellently throughout our life.