Introduction to the Mughal Empire

• The Mughal Empire ruled South Asia (current northern India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan) from the early 16th century to the 19th century.

• The name “Mughal” means Mongol in Persian, and the empire was built by a foreign tribe of Mongol origin.

• Babur, the progenitor of the Mughal Empire, was a direct descendant of Timur, who descended from Genghis Khan.

• The Mughal Empire was founded in 1526 when Babur defeated the Delhi Sultanate.

• Humayun, Babur’s son, was defeated by Sher Shah of the Suri dynasty in 1540 and fled to Persia. He retook Delhi in 1555 and revived the Mughal dynasty.

• The period from Akbar to Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb is considered the golden age of the Mughal Empire.

• Akbar expanded the empire, conquering regions like the Malwa Plateau, Gujarat, Bengal, Kashmir, and Kandahar.

• Akbar established centralization by organizing bureaucracy and administration and implemented religiously tolerant policies, such as giving Hindu officials government positions.

• Akbar introduced Din-i-Ilahi, a syncretic religion, combining elements of Islam and Hinduism, though it had few followers and disappeared.

• Under Jahangir and Shah Jahan, the Mughal Empire flourished economically and culturally.

• The empire began to decline under Aurangzeb, who achieved the largest territorial expansion but was intolerant of other religions, destroying Hindu temples and reintroducing a poll tax for non-Muslims.

• Aurangzeb’s religious and expansionist policies led to resistance, consuming vast resources and weakening the empire.

• After Aurangzeb’s death, the Mughal Empire continued to collapse, and by the late 18th century, the British East India Company took control, with Mughal emperors serving only as nominal rulers.

• In 1857, the Sepoy Mutiny occurred, and Bahadur Shah II was crowned emperor, but the rebellion was suppressed, and the Mughal Empire ceased to exist.

• The economy thrived with commerce, the fabric industry, and a monetary economy. The establishment of a communication network and trade with foreign countries (including West Asia and Europe) boosted domestic industries.

• However, the economy declined from the late 17th century due to factors like decreased agricultural productivity, corruption, and expansionist policies.

• Culturally, the empire saw a flourishing mixed culture, with Islam dominating the authority but a tolerant policy allowing Hindu culture to blend with Islamic culture.

• Sikhism, a syncretic religion combining elements of Hinduism and Islam, gained followers under Mughal rule, especially in Punjab.

• The Mughal period saw a thriving of art, literature, and architecture, blending Hindu, Turkic, and Persian styles. Shah Jahan‘s Taj Mahal is an example, blending Hindu and Muslim artistic elements.

• The official language of the empire was Farsi (Persian), but Hindi and Urdu, influenced by Persian, Arabic, and Turkic, were also widely spoken.

• Science, including astronomy and technology like gunpowder, developed continuously during this period.

Historiography under the Mughals

• The most dominant feature of the historiography of the Mughal period is the tradition of history writing by official chroniclers appointed by almost all Mughal emperors until the reign of Aurangzeb.

• These chroniclers were appointed by the emperors and had access to all official records for the purpose of writing history.

• Another important feature is the autobiographical accounts written by the emperors themselves.

• Tuzuk-i Baburi (written in Turkish and not Persian) by Babur and Tuzuk-i Jahangiri (written in Persian) by Jahangir are significant works in this genre.

• Apart from the official works, independent scholars also wrote independent works, offering a critical appraisal of the policies and events of the period.

The Early Writings

• Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur, who invaded India and replaced the Lodi rule in 1526, was a prolific writer, writing in both Turkish and Persian.

• His autobiography, Tuzuk-i Baburi, written in Turkish, is a literary masterpiece containing:

  • The history of the decline of the Timurid power in Central Asia.

  • Babur’s biography and the description of life and culture in India.

  • A diary of events from the campaigns he led against his rivals in eastern India.

• Babur’s account of Central Asia and Khurasan is marked by objectivity, but his depiction of the Indian ruling elite lacks objectivity due to his hostility towards his rivals.

• Babur describes the Indian nobles as untrustworthy, even though he himself had deceived them.

• Babur praises India’s resources, highlighting the availability of skilled craftsmen and artisans in towns and cities.

• He mentions that for any work or trade, there is always a set group of people ready, whose employment and trade have been passed down father to son for generations.

• Babur lists sarkars (territorial units) and their annual revenue yields.

• He provides interesting descriptions of towns and cities, including their topography.

• The geographical details in his biography further enhance its significance.

• The Tuzuk-i Baburi is not just a political narrative but also considered a naturalist’s journal, with graphic and insightful descriptions of the fauna and flora of the regions he visited.

• Babur’s son, Humayun (1530-1555), was also interested in history and commissioned the renowned scholar Khawandmir to write the history of his reign.

• Qanun-i Humayuni, written by Khawandmir, provides a brief account of Humayun’s reign from his accession up to 1535 and sheds light on:

  • Humayun’s state policy, particularly towards the Indian nobles and landed aristocracy.

  • Humayun’s efforts to win over Indian chiefs to his side.