1. The First Major Challenge: The Revolt of 1857 

• Date and Setting: Morning of May 11, 1857, in Delhi, India 
• Event: Sepoys from Meerut, who had rebelled the previous day, entered Delhi, urging Bahadur Shah II to lead them against the British East India Company. 
• Bahadur Shah II: The reluctant Mughal Emperor, coerced into becoming the leader (Shahenshah-e-Hindustan) of the revolt, giving it a political legitimacy. 
• Simon Fraser: Political Agent in Delhi, and other Englishmen were killed; public offices occupied or destroyed. 
• Spread of Revolt: Meerut incident led to a widespread mutiny across North, Central, and Western India; Punjab and Bengal marginally affected. 
• Sepoy Strength: Almost half of the Company’s 2,32,224 sepoys opted out, defying regimental loyalty. 
• Rumblings of Resentment: Prior incidents like the disbandment of the 19th Native Infantry in Berhampur and the execution of Mangal Pande in the 34th Native Infantry. 

Leaders of the Revolt: 

• Nana Saheb (Kanpur): Adopted son of the last Peshwa, became a leader after the capture of Kanpur. 
• Begum Hazrat Mahal (Lucknow): Led rebellion in Lucknow, son Birjis Qadir proclaimed Nawab. 
• Khan Bahadur (Bareilly): Descendant of Rohilkhand ruler, resisted British with an army in Bareilly. 
• Kunwar Singh (Bihar): Led the revolt in Bihar against British, nursing a grudge due to the loss of estates. 
• Rani Lakshmibhai (Jhansi): Fought against the British after the annexation of Jhansi, a formidable enemy. 
• Geographic Spread: Rebellion spread to various cities—Kanpur, Lucknow, Benares, Allahabad, Bareilly, Jagdishpur, and Jhansi. 

Reasons for Sepoy Revolt: 

• Religious Conflicts: Caste and religious beliefs clashed with the conditions of service; sepoys’ demands accommodated initially but became untenable. 
• Doctrine of Lapse: Grievances against the British annexation policies, illustrated by the case of Rani Lakshmibhai. 
• Discontent with Emoluments: Sepoys discontent with pay, racial discrimination, and lack of privileges compared to British counterparts. 
• Cartridge Controversy: Rumors of cartridges greased with beef and pig fat heightened religious sensitivities, contributing to discontent. 
• General Disenchantment: Sepoys reflected the broader disenchantment and opposition to British rule, aligning with the sentiments of the rural population. 
• Military Officer’s Warning: A military officer warned Lord Dalhousie about potential consequences of policies infringing upon the rights of the peasantry and the army’s fidelity. 

Agricultural Impact: 

• Represented sepoys often had family ties to agriculture in Oudh. 
• 75,000 men from Oudh in the army, making events there of immediate concern to sepoys. 
• New land revenue system and land confiscation affected sepoys’ well-being. 
• 14,000 petitions from sepoys about hardships of the revenue system. 

Political Act Against British Rule: 

• Proclamation by Delhi rebels reflected sepoy’s awareness of misery under British rule. 
• Mutiny was a revolt against the British, a political act. 
• Sepoy’s identity of interests with the general population gave a political character to the mutiny. 

Civil Rebellion: 

• Rebellion of civil population followed the sepoys’ revolt, especially in North Western Provinces and Oudh. 
• Rural population, released from state control, rose against British rule. 
• Government buildings destroyed, treasury plundered, rebellion embraced all sections of society. 

Impact on Various Sections of Society: 

• Traditional landed aristocracy suffered, taluqdars lost power and privileges. 
• Artisans and handicraftsmen faced misery due to British policies. 
• Reforming zeal of British officials created suspicion, resentment, and opposition. 
• Coalition of sepoy revolt and civil population created an unprecedented popular upsurge. 

Organization and Planning of the Revolt: 

• Lack of reliable accounts makes it difficult to determine if the revolt was planned. 
• Leaders’ activities suggest no planning or conspiracy, possibly spontaneous. 
• Efforts to create organization: letters to neighboring states, court of administrators in Delhi. 

Challenges Faced by Rebels: 

• Rebels struggled against heavy odds, lacked arms, faced British with modern weapons. 
• No quick communication system, lack of coordination among rebels. 
• Despite sympathy from the people, the country as a whole was not fully behind the rebels. 

Role of Indian Rulers and Merchants: 

• Indian rulers and merchants kept aloof, actively supported the British. 
• Meetings in Calcutta and Bombay to pray for British success despite Doctrine of Lapse. 

Leadership and Conclusion of the Revolt: 

• Rebels poorly served by leaders; many failed to realize the significance of the revolt. 
• Rebels lacked a political perspective or a vision for the future. 
• Heroism of rebels could not stop the superior British army. 
• Delhi captured on September 20, 1857, breaking the back of the revolt. 
• Leaders like Rani of Jhansi, Kunwar Singh, Nana Saheb, Tantia Tope faced varying fates. 
• Despite failure, the Revolt served as a source of inspiration for the later national liberation movement. 

2. Civil Rebellions and Tribal Uprisings 

Forms of Resistance: 

Civil Rebellions: 

• Led by deposed rulers, impoverished zamindars, landlords, and ex-officials. 
• Mass base came from rack-rented peasants, ruined artisans, and demobilized soldiers. 
• Rapid changes in the economy, administration, and land revenue system by the British triggered these rebellions. 
• Major cause: British policies leading to the disruption of the agrarian society. 

Tribal Uprisings: 

• Caused by the colonial administration’s intrusion into tribal areas, new land revenue systems, and the influence of traders, moneylenders, and revenue farmers. 
• Tribals resisted the loss of land, exploitation, and forced labor. 
• Rebellions were marked by immense courage, charismatic leaders, and brutal suppression. 

Peasant Movements: 

• Peasants rose against rapid changes introduced by the British in the economy and land revenue system. 
• Increased land revenue demands led to indebtedness and loss of land for peasants. 
• Loss of traditional patrons and the decline of handicraft industries added to the peasants’ misery. 

Causes of Popular Resistance: 

Economic Disruption: 

• British policies led to economic hardships, including increased land revenue and exploitation by moneylenders. 
• Rapid settlement and revenue collection methods caused distress among cultivators. 

Social Impact: 

• Traditional landed aristocracy suffered from the loss of power and privileges. 
• Artisans and craftsmen faced economic ruin due to the decline of traditional industries. 

Religious and Cultural Concerns: 

• Reforming zeal of British officials was perceived as a threat to religion and culture. 
• Proclamations of rebels expressed opposition to social legislation and perceived aid to missionaries. 

Organization of the Revolt: 

• The Revolt had both spontaneous and organized elements. 
• Despite the absence of clear planning, efforts were made to create institutions and organizations in Delhi and other centers. 
• The rebellion faced challenges due to British counter-offensives and lack of coordination among rebels. 

Leadership and Outcome: 

• Lack of a single capable leader among the rebels was a significant limitation. 
• The rebels demonstrated courage and commitment, but their effort ultimately faced defeat. 
• Delhi’s capture in September 1857 marked a turning point, and subsequent military actions quelled the rebellion. 

Legacy: 

• Despite its failure, the Revolt of 1857 served as a source of inspiration for the later national liberation movement in India. 
• The rebels’ heroic acts contributed to the eventual struggle for freedom, even though their immediate objectives were not achieved. 

3. Peasant Movements and Uprisings after 1857  

Colonial Exploitation of Indian Peasantry: 

• Discusses the impact of colonial economic policies, new land revenue systems, administrative and judicial structures, and the decline of handicrafts. 
• Highlights the transformation of agrarian structures and impoverishment of the peasantry. 

Indigo Revolt (1859-60): 

• Describes the oppressive practices of European indigo planters, forcing peasants to grow indigo under exploitative conditions. 
• Details the resistance and protests by peasants, leading to the Indigo Revolt. 

Resistance Strategies: 

• Peasants resisted oppression through various means, including petitions, peaceful demonstrations, and, in some cases, resorting to crime, such as robbery and dacoity. 

Pabna Agrarian Leagues (1870s-1880s): 

• Discusses agrarian unrest in East Bengal, where peasants formed leagues to resist oppressive practices by zamindars. 
• Notes the use of legal resistance, rent strikes, and social boycotts as methods of protest. 

Government Response: 

• Government response to these movements was discussed, including restrained measures in some cases and the appointment of commissions to address issues. 

Deccan Social Boycott Movement (1875): 

• Describes a movement against moneylenders in Maharashtra, focusing on a social boycott that later transformed into agrarian riots. 

Peasant Solidarity and Leadership: 

• Emphasizes Hindu-Muslim solidarity and the role of intelligentsia in supporting peasant causes. 
• Highlights the emergence of leaders supporting peasants’ rights and providing a platform for their grievances. 

Impact on Nationalist Movement: 

• Points out the impact of these peasant movements on the emerging nationalist intellectuals, setting a tradition for the national movement. 

Government Measures and Legislation: 

• Discusses government measures to address grievances, such as commissions and legislations like the Bengal Tenancy Act. 
• Notes that some movements led to the protection of peasants against exploitation. 

Peasant Movements After 1857: 

• Highlights a shift in nature after the 1857 uprising, with peasants becoming the main force in agrarian movements. 
• Notes that these movements had limited objectives and did not pose a direct threat to British supremacy. 

Weaknesses of 19th Century Peasant Movements: 

• Points out the lack of a comprehensive understanding of colonialism, its economic structure, and the absence of a new ideology. 
• Discusses the weaknesses that made it easier for the colonial state to either conciliate or suppress the movements. 

Evolution of Peasant Movements in the 20th Century: 

• Suggests that these weaknesses were overcome in the 20th century when peasant discontent merged with the broader anti-imperialist movement. 

 
 4. Foundation of the Congress: The Myth  

• The myth of the “safety valve” theory suggests that the Indian National Congress was founded by A.O. Hume under the guidance of Lord Dufferin, the Viceroy, to provide a peaceful outlet for rising discontent and prevent a violent revolution. 
• This theory has been widely accepted, with various political groups using it to support their perspectives on the Congress, ranging from liberals to radicals and the extreme right. 
• Lala Lajpat Rai, in his 1916 work “Young India,” used the safety-valve theory to criticize the Early Nationalists in the Congress, arguing that it was more about saving the British Empire than winning political liberty for India. 
• R. Palme Dutt, in “India Today” (published more than a quarter-century later), made the safety-valve theory a staple of left-wing opinion, claiming that the Congress was created by the government to safeguard British rule against popular unrest. 
• The theory suggests a dual role for the Congress leadership – cooperating with imperialism against mass movements while leading the masses in the national struggle. 
• Historical proof for the safety-valve theory was claimed to be found in seven volumes of secret reports that A.O. Hume allegedly read in 1878, indicating seething discontent and a conspiracy among the lower classes. 
• However, a critical examination reveals that the seven volumes were not government documents but reports from Gurus and Chelas (disciples) of secret quasi-religious orders, with occult powers, providing information to Hume. 
• The Gurus were part of an invisible brotherhood in Tibet, communicating with Hume through occult means. Hume believed in their supernatural abilities and sought their advice for political objectives. 
• W.C. Bonnerjee’s statement that the Congress was the work of Lord Dufferin contradicts contemporary evidence, as Hume had been urging Indians to take up politics since his retirement in 1882. 
• Dufferin and other officials were not sympathetic to the Congress, and Dufferin even expressed a desire to end its existence. 
• The safety-valve theory is debunked as a myth, and the true origins of the Congress are traced back to political motives rather than an imp 

5. Foundation of The Indian National Congress: The Reality  

Historical Background: 

• The foundation of the Indian National Congress in 1885 is presented as the culmination of a political awakening that began in the 1860s and 1870s. 
• The passage mentions the efforts to dispel the myth of the Congress being a “safety-valve” and the role of A.O. Hume, a retired British civil servant, in organizing the Congress. 

Political Awakening and Nationalist Demands: 

• The political activity leading to the founding of the Congress is described as a response to the growing political awakening among modern intellectuals in India. 
• The demands put forth by nationalist Indians included issues such as import duties, expansion in Afghanistan or Burma, right to bear arms, freedom of the press, reduction of military expenditure, Indianization of civil services, and more. 

Official Suspicion and Nationalist Agitations: 

• The British government viewed the nationalist political activity with suspicion, fearing disloyalty, sedition, and potential agitations similar to those in Ireland. 
• The demands, though seemingly mild when considered individually, were seen as a threat to colonial hegemony. 

Role of Younger Nationalist Intellectuals: 

• The years between 1875 and 1885 saw the emergence of younger, more radical nationalist intellectuals who formed new associations. 

• Existing associations were criticized for being narrowly focused, and new ones, like the Indian Association, Madras Mahajan Sabha, and Bombay Presidency Association, were established. 

Formation of Major Nationalist Newspapers: 

• A significant development during these years was the establishment of major nationalist newspapers, including The Hindu, Tribune, Bengalee, Mahratta, and Kesari. 

Need for an All-India Political Organization: 

• By 1883, there was a recognized need for an all-India political organization, and various moves were made in that direction. 
• The passage mentions the All-India National Conference organized by the Indian Association in December 1883. 

Coordination of Political Efforts: 

• The Indians had gained experience from various agitations organized in the preceding years, realizing the importance of coordinated efforts on an all-India basis. 
• The passage highlights the failure of certain efforts due to lack of coordination and the need for a united political platform. 

Objectives of the Indian National Congress: 

• The Congress founders aimed to promote the process of making India into a nation and to foster a feeling of national unity and nationalism among the people. 
• The Congress was perceived as a platform for the political, social, and economic development of India. 

Secular and Democratic Nation-Building: 

• The Congress aimed to build a secular nation and promote the internalization and indigenization of political democracy. 
• Civil liberties, freedom of the press, and opposition to racial discrimination were integral parts of the early nationalist movement. 

Role of Early Nationalist Leaders: 

• The early nationalist leaders were seen as both learners and teachers, developing an anti-colonial nationalist ideology based on a concrete study of reality and practice. 
• The passage acknowledges mistakes made by the leaders but emphasizes the importance of grappling with reality and evolving a dynamic understanding. 

Formation of an All-India Leadership: 

• The Congress was not conceived as a party but as a movement, incorporating diverse political trends, ideologies, and social classes. 

• The need for an all-India national-political leadership was recognized, and efforts were made to form a unified leadership group. 

Ideological Struggle and Evolution: 

• The early nationalist leaders engaged in an ideological struggle against colonialism, addressing questions about the nature of British rule, contradictions, and the feasibility of a successful Indian fight against the British Empire. 
• While mass movements were not organized at this stage, the passage emphasizes the importance of ideological struggle and the internalization of political democracy. 

Role of A.O. Hume: 

• The passage addresses the question of why the Congress founders needed A.O. Hume, a retired British civil servant, as the chief organizer. 
• It suggests that the cooperation with Hume was strategic, aiming to minimize official hostility and suspicion in the early stages of their political work. 

6. Socio – Religious Reforms and the National Awakening  

Raja Rammohan Roy’s Critique (1828): 

• Present Hindu religion not conducive to political interests. 
• Caste divisions and religious rituals hinder patriotism. 
• Urgent need for religious change for political advantage. 

Diverse Reform Movements (19th Century): 

Hindu Movements: 

• Brahmo Samaj (1828) by Rammohan Roy. 
• Paramahansa Mandali, Prarthana Samaj, Arya Samaj. 
• Regional movements like Kayasth Sabha, Sarin Sabha. 

Muslim, Sikh, Parsee Movements: 

• Ahmadiya, Aligarh movements (Muslims). 
• Singh Sabha (Sikhs), Rehnumai Mazdeyasan Sabha (Parsees). 

Backward Caste Movements: 

• Satya Sodhak Samaj (Maharashtra), Sri Narayana Dharma Paripalana Sabha (Kerala). 

Humanist Approach to Reform: 

• Reformation not exclusively religious. 
• Emphasis on worldly existence. 
• Leaders like Rammohan, Vidyasagar, Bankim, Vivekananda focused on societal issues. 

Religious and Social Evils: 

• Hinduism filled with superstitions, idolatry, and caste-based divisions. 
• Priests held immense influence. 
• Deplorable conditions for women, caste system, and untouchability. 

Religious Reformation as Prerequisite: 

• Need for religious change for social reform. 
• Rejection of decadent practices rooted in religious dogmas. 
• Reformers referred to a golden past distorted by accretion. 

Intellectual Criteria of Reform Movements: 

Rationalism: 

• Rammohan Roy, Akshay Kumar Dutt emphasized rational critique. 
• Causality and demonstrability as criteria for truth. 
• Brahmo Samaj rejected Vedas’ infallibility. 

Religious Universalism: 

• Considered religions as national embodiments of universal theism. 
• Brahmo Samaj conceived as a universalist church. 
• Emphasis on universal principles across religions. 

Role of Women in Reform: 

• Improvement of women’s conditions crucial for effective reform. 
• Efforts to liberate women from societal constraints. 

Struggle Against Caste System: 

• Recognized caste as morally and ethically abhorrent. 
• Ranade, Dayanand, Vivekananda denounced caste system. 
• Lower caste movements like Jyotiba Phule’s vehemently criticized caste distinctions. 

Modernization, not Westernization: 

• Aimed at modernization rather than blindly adopting Western norms. 
• Struggle between traditional sentiments and modern commitments. 
• Reformers sought a balanced approach, not total rejection of tradition. 

Cultural-ideological Struggle: 

• Against backward elements of traditional culture and colonial cultural hegemony. 
• Creation of an alternate cultural system, regeneration of traditional institutions. 
• Emphasis on vernacular languages, education, art, literature, dress, and food. 

Evolution of New Society: 

• Unprecedented mental agony and social tension during reforms. 
• Struggle led to the evolution of new individuals and society. 
• Cultural-ideological struggle integral to the evolving national consciousness. 

7. An Economic Critique of Colonialism  

• Indian national movement deeply rooted in understanding of colonial economic domination. 
• Early leaders, Moderates, developed economic critique of colonialism in the 19th century. 
• Initial positive attitude toward British rule shifted to disillusionment after 1860. 
• Dadabhai Naoroji, Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade, Romesh Chandra Dutt, G.V. Joshi, G. Subramaniya Iyer, G.K. Gokhale, Prithwis Chandra Ray, among others, analyzed colonial economic policies. 
• They recognized British imperialism subordinated Indian economy to the British economy. 
• Colonial structure manifested through domination in trade, industry, and finance. 
• 19th-century colonialism transformed India into a supplier of raw materials, a market for British goods, and a field for British capital. 
• Nationalists were both learners and teachers, organizing intellectual agitations against official economic policies. 
• Poverty was seen as man-made, a consequence of colonial rulers’ economic policies. 
• Economic development emphasized rapid development of modern industry. 
• Early nationalists unanimously believed in the need for industrialization based on Indian capital, rejecting foreign capital. 
• Foreign capital viewed as an evil, leading to exploitation and reinforcing British control. 
• Decline of traditional handicrafts attributed to deliberate British policy favoring industrialization in Britain. 
• Foreign trade and railways criticized for negative impact on indigenous industries. 
• Free trade policy seen as harmful, forcing unequal competition and ruining Indian industries. 
• Drain theory highlighted the transfer of India’s wealth to Britain through salaries, pensions, and profits. 
• Drain theory became a major theme in nationalist political agitation, contributing to the erosion of British rule’s moral foundations. 
• Economic development was offered as the chief justification for British rule; nationalists countered, asserting that poverty was a consequence of colonial exploitation. 
• Economic agitation linked economic issues with the politically subordinated status of the country. 
• Demand for self-government emerged by 1905 as a key political goal for Indian nationalists. 
• Nationalists rooted their movement in a scientific analysis of colonial economic mechanisms. 
• Later nationalists built upon this economic critique to stage powerful mass movements. 

8. The Fight to Secure Press Freedom  

Early Advocacy for Press Freedom: 

• Raja Rammohan Roy protested against a regulation restricting the freedom of the Press as early as 1824. 
• Emphasized that unrestricted liberty of publication is crucial for a ruler to be aware of issues requiring intervention. 

National Movement and Press (1870-1918): 

• During 1870-1918, the national movement focused on politicization, political propaganda, and education. 
• The Press played a key role in arousing, training, mobilizing, and consolidating nationalist public opinion. 
• Newspapers were vital in propagating resolutions and proceedings of the National Congress, with many founding fathers being journalists. 

Influential Newspapers and Journalists: 

• Prominent newspapers and journalists included G. Subramaniya lyer, B.G. Tilak, Surendranath Banerjea, Sisir Kumar Ghosh, G.K. Gokhale, Dadabhai Naoroji, and others. 
• Major political leaders were often associated with newspapers, contributing to political education. 

Impact Beyond Literate Subscribers: 

• Newspapers reached remote villages, fostering political discussions. 
• Library movements emerged, organizing discussions around newspapers, making reading and discussion a form of political participation. 

Philanthropic Nature of Newspapers: 

• Newspapers were not business enterprises but seen as a public service. 
• Editors and journalists were often political workers and agitators, sacrificing for the cause. 

Challenges and Creative Strategies: 

• Section 24A of the Indian Penal Code posed challenges to journalists. 
• Journalists used strategies like prefacing criticism with loyalty statements and quoting foreign publications to avoid direct confrontation. 

Controversies and Role of the Press: 

• Newspapers played an institutional role of opposition to the Government. 
• Lord Dufferin acknowledged the role of the nationalist Press in generating anti-government sentiments. 

Freedom of the Press Struggles: 

• The Vernacular Press Act of 1878, directed at Indian language newspapers, faced opposition and was repealed in 1881. 
• Newspapers cleverly fought against legal measures, adapting and evolving their writing styles. 

Tilak and Press Freedom: 

• Bal Gangadhar Tilak, a prominent leader, founded Kesari in 1881. 
• Imprisoned twice, in 1897 and 1908, for sedition charges related to his writings. 
• Tilak’s imprisonment led to widespread protests, and he became a symbol of the struggle for the freedom of the Press. 

Legal Challenges and Sentences: 

• Legal challenges, such as Section 124A of the Indian Penal Code, were used to curb press freedom. 
• Press freedom struggles led to amendments in laws, triggering nationwide protests and movements. 

Impact and Legacy: 

• The struggle for the freedom of the Press became integral to the broader struggle for independence. 
• Tilak’s imprisonment and trials influenced later leaders, including Mahatma Gandhi. 

9. Propaganda in the Legislatures  

• Imperial Legislative Council (1861): The Imperial Legislative Council was established by the Indian Councils Act of 1861. However, it lacked real powers and could not discuss important matters without prior government approval. It met infrequently, reflecting its limited influence. 
• Limited Representation of Indians: While Indian members were added to represent Indian views, they were a minority, and their representation was often indirect. Most Indian members were chosen from princely states, big zamindars, merchants, and retired officials, rather than political figures representing popular opinion. 
• Nationalist Dissatisfaction (Till 1892): The initial demands of early nationalists were focused on expanding and reforming Legislative Councils. The Act of 1892 increased the number of members but did not provide significant powers. The Councils remained largely impotent. 
• Nationalist Agitation: Nationalists gradually demanded more significant changes, including a majority for non-official elected members with the right to vote on the budget. The slogan “no taxation without representation” emerged, reflecting the desire for greater participation. 
• Role of Legislative Councils (1892-1909): Despite their limited powers, Indian leaders, such as Pherozeshah Mehta and Gopal Krishna Gokhale, transformed the Legislative Councils into platforms for ventilating popular grievances and criticizing government policies. Their speeches gained public attention, and the Councils became avenues for nationalist propaganda. 
• Gokhale’s Budget Speech (1902): Gopal Krishna Gokhale’s impactful budget speech in 1902, where he criticized the surplus budget during times of economic depression, highlighted the poverty of the masses, and questioned government priorities, established him as a formidable parliamentarian. 
• Gokhale’s Contributions: Gokhale continued to bring attention to issues such as peasant poverty, drain of wealth, industrial development, taxation, lack of welfare measures, and civil liberties in subsequent budget speeches and legislative discussions. 
• Nationalist Recognition: Gokhale received widespread acclaim from the nationalist press and public for his courage and intellect in challenging government policies. His budget speeches were seen as a source of pride for Indians. 
• Legacy of Pherozeshah Mehta and Gopal Krishna Gokhale: Mehta and Gokhale, though political moderates, significantly influenced Indian politics through their fearless criticism and intellectual contributions in the Legislative Councils 

10.The Swadeshi Movement – 1903 – 1908  

Imperial Legislative Council (1861): 

• Established by the Indian Councils Act of 1861. 
• Lacked real powers, needed prior government approval for discussions, and met infrequently. 

Limited Representation of Indians: 

• Indian members were a minority and often represented indirectly. 
• Mostly chosen from princely states, zamindars, merchants, and retired officials. 

Nationalist Dissatisfaction (Till 1892): 

• Early nationalists focused on expanding Legislative Councils. 
• Act of 1892 increased members but didn’t grant significant powers; Councils remained impotent. 

Nationalist Agitation: 

• Demand for more significant changes, including majority for non-official elected members. 
• Slogan “no taxation without representation” emerged. 

Role of Legislative Councils (1892-1909): 

• Leaders like Pherozeshah Mehta, Gopal Krishna Gokhale transformed Councils into platforms. 
• Ventilated grievances, criticized policies, became avenues for nationalist propaganda. 

Gokhale’s Budget Speech (1902): 

• Gokhale’s impactful speech criticized surplus budget, highlighted poverty, and questioned government priorities. 

Gokhale’s Contributions: 

• Addressed issues like peasant poverty, drain of wealth, industrial development, taxation, lack of welfare measures, civil liberties. 

Nationalist Recognition: 

• Gokhale received acclaim for challenging government policies. 
• Budget speeches a source of pride for Indians. 

Legacy of Mehta and Gokhale: 

• Influential political moderates. 
• Criticized fearlessly, made intellectual contributions in Legislative Councils. 

Partition of Bengal (1905): 

• Lord Curzon’s attempt to weaken nationalist influence. 
• Meant to divide Bengali-speaking population and exploit communal divisions. 

Anti-Partition Movement (1903-1905): 

• Widespread protests, pamphlet distribution, and critique of partition proposals. 
• Big zamindars joined Congress leaders against partition. 

Swadeshi Movement (1905): 

• Formalized on August 7, 1905, at Calcutta town hall. 
• Boycott resolution passed, marking the beginning of Swadeshi and Boycott Movement. 

Expansion of Swadeshi Movement: 

• Message spread to different parts of India. 
• Indian National Congress supported Swadeshi and Boycott Movement. 

Split in Congress (1907): 

• Radical nationalists advocated extending movement beyond Swadeshi and boycott. 
• Congress split at Surat session, impacting Swadeshi Movement. 

Forms of Mobilization in Swadeshi Movement: 

• Boycott of foreign goods, public burning of foreign cloth. 
• Formation of volunteer organizations (samitis) for mass mobilization. 
• Use of traditional festivals, jatras, and folk theatre for propaganda. 

Cultural Impact of Swadeshi Movement: 

• Rabindranath Tagore’s songs, Abanindranath Tagore’s art. 
• Emphasis on self-reliance, national education, and indigenous enterprises. 

Legacy of Swadeshi Movement: 

• Expanded social base of the national movement. 
• Introduced modern political ideas to various sections of society. 
• Impact on culture, art, and science. 

Rise of Revolutionary Nationalism (Post-1908): 

• Youth turned to “individual heroism” after decline of mass movement. 
• Opened a new phase in the struggle for independence. 

Conclusion on Swadeshi Movement: 

• Though declined by mid-1908, it left a lasting impact on Indian politics and culture. 
• Provided the foundation for later phases of the national movement. 

11. The Split in the Congress and the Rise of Revolutionary Nationalism 

Moderate Nationalists (Pre-1907): 

• The Moderate nationalists played a significant role in Indian politics around 1907. 
• They achieved considerable success considering the challenges they faced, but their failures were also notable. 
• Lack of engagement with the common people and failure to organize all-India campaigns were among their shortcomings. 
• Their political approach aimed at persuading rulers for economic and political reforms, but practical achievements were limited. 
• The British treated them with contempt despite their moderate stance. 

British Hostility and Changing Policies: 

• British suspicion of the National Congress grew as it evolved into a focus of Indian nationalism. 
• The Moderates faced open hostility from British officials who considered them disloyal despite their moderation. 
• The British policy shifted from sneering at Moderates to attempting to rally them as part of a strategy known as “carrot and stick.” 
• The aim was to weaken the nationalist movement by repressing radicals, conciliating moderates, and suppressing both if necessary. 

Surat Split (1907): 

• The Swadeshi and Boycott Movement (1905-1907) marked a turning point, leading to a split between Moderates and Radicals. 
• The British government changed its strategy, hoping to exploit divisions among nationalists. 
• The Surat session of the Congress in 1907 ended in chaos, with physical confrontations, leading to the collapse of the session. 
• The government considered this a triumph, and the Radicals faced repression. 

Impact of the Split: 

• The split weakened the nationalist movement, and the Moderates’ attempt to rebuild the Congress was unsuccessful. 
• The British successfully exploited divisions and shifted their strategy as per the changing dynamics of the nationalist movement. 

Morley-Minto Reforms (1909): 

• The constitutional reforms of 1909 failed to satisfy nationalist expectations. 
• Separate electorates for Muslims were introduced, contributing to the growth of communalism. 

Rise of Revolutionary Nationalism (Post-1907): 

• Dissatisfaction with constitutional reforms led to the emergence of revolutionary nationalism. 
• Young activists turned to methods of individual heroism and revolutionary acts, inspired by Irish nationalists and Russian populists. 
• Secret societies like Anushilan Samity and Jugantor played a role in advocating and organizing revolutionary actions. 
• The activities included assassinations of British officials and Swadeshi dacoities. 

Decline of Revolutionary Nationalism: 

• Despite remarkable heroism, revolutionary nationalism lacked a mass base and eventually petered out. 
• The movement faced suppression by the colonial state, and individual revolutionaries were killed or convicted. 
• Although small in number and short-lived, the revolutionaries made a valuable contribution to the growth of Indian nationalism. 

 12. World War I and Indian Nationalism: The Ghadar  

Background of Ghadar Movement: 

• Emergence during World War I. 
• Rejuvenation of nationalist sentiments after the Swadeshi Movement. 

Punjabi Immigration to North America: 

• Increased migration from Punjab since 1904. 
• Economic hardships and search for opportunities. 

Challenges Faced by Indian Immigrants: 

• Racial contempt and hostility in North America. 
• Discriminatory immigration policies. 
• Native American laborers’ opposition. 

Response and Political Activity: 

• Political exiles like Ramnath Puri issued Circulars of Liberty. 
• Tarak Nath Das and G.D. Kumar initiated nationalist publications. 
• United India House established in Seattle for advocacy. 

Ghadar Movement in the U.S.: 

• Lala Har Dayal played a crucial role. 
• Formation of Ghadar Party and Yugantar Ashram. 
• Launch of Ghadar newspaper in Urdu and Gurmukhi. 

Ideological Contributions of Ghadar Movement: 

• Propagation of a nationalist critique of British colonialism. 
• Creation of secular consciousness among Punjabis. 
• Egalitarian, democratic, and internationalist outlook. 

Leaders and Influential Figures: 

• Har Dayal, Ram Chandra, Barkatullah, Rash Behari Bose. 
• Recognition of leaders from various regions and religions. 

Komagata Maru Incident: 

• Chartering of the ship to challenge Canadian immigration laws. 
• Increased anti-British mobilization among Indian immigrants. 

Impact of World War I: 

• Ghadarites saw an opportunity to seize during the war. 
• Plans to organize an armed revolt in India. 

Crushing of Ghadar Movement: 

• Arrests, escape, and arrest of leaders like Har Dayal. 
• Komagata Maru incident and outbreak of World War I. 
• Failed attempts to organize mutiny among Indian troops. 

Legacy and Contribution: 

• Success measured in ideological impact and consciousness. 
• Deepening of nationalist consciousness among Indian immigrants. 
• Evolution of secular, egalitarian, and democratic ideologies. 

Weaknesses of Ghadar Movement: 

• Underestimation of necessary preparation for armed revolt. 
• Lack of sustained leadership and effective organizational structure. 
• High human cost with leaders sentenced to death and imprisonment. 

Later Contributions of Ghadarites: 

• Some survivors contributed to secular and peasant movements in Punjab. 
• Helped resist communal tendencies in the late ’20s and ’30s. 

13. The Home Rule Movement and Its Fallout  

Ghadar Revolutionaries and World War I: 

• Romantic adventure of Ghadar revolutionaries as a response to World War I. 
• Dramatic actions by Indians abroad in contrast to the Home Rule League Movement. 

Bal Gangadhar Tilak’s Release (1914): 

• Released in June 1914 after six years of imprisonment. 
• Returned to a changed India, marked by shifts in leadership and Congress struggles. 
• Aurobindo Ghose in Pondicherry, Lala Lajpat Rai in the USA, and Congress facing challenges. 

Tilak’s Efforts for Congress Readmission (1914-1915): 

• Focused on rejoining Congress, considering it crucial for political success. 
• Publicly declared commitment to administrative reform, not government overthrow. 
• Moderate leaders sympathetic to Tilak’s overtures due to dissatisfaction and pressure from Annie Besant. 

Annie Besant’s Entry and Efforts (1914-1915): 

• Annie Besant, aged 66, joined Indian National Congress, spreading Theosophy. 
• Advocated for nationalist political activity, especially Home Rule. 
• Worked to open Congress doors to Radicals, faced disappointment at the December 1914 Congress session. 

Revival of Political Activity (1915): 

• Tilak and Besant, denied entry to Congress, revived political activity independently. 
• Annie Besant launched a Home Rule campaign through newspapers and public meetings. 
• Tilak focused on convincing Moderates and establishing local associations for political unity. 

Success and Re-entry into Congress (1915-1916): 

• Efforts of Tilak and Besant met success, Radicals allowed to rejoin Congress in December 1915. 
• Annie Besant’s Home Rule League delayed by Congress’s lack of support; Tilak proceeded independently. 

Formation of Home Rule Leagues (1916): 

• Annie Besant formed Home Rule League in September 1916 after Congress inactivity. 
• Tilak’s Home Rule League established in April 1916 at the Bombay Provincial Conference in Belgaum. 
• Leagues operated in demarcated areas, avoiding conflicts. 

Tilak’s Propagation of Home Rule (1916-1917): 

• Tilak toured Maharashtra, linking swaraj with linguistic states and vernacular education. 
• Emphasized unity in Congress and rejected regional or linguistic chauvinism. 
• Advocated for non-Brahmin representation and opposed untouchability. 

Government’s Repression (July 23, 1916): 

• Government’s repressive actions intensified on Tilak’s 60th birthday, July 23, 1916. 
• Tilak arrested and charged; defended by lawyers led by Mohammed Ali Jinnah. 
• Lost the case in the Magistrate’s Court but exonerated by the High Court in November 1916. 

Annie Besant’s Imprisonment (1917): 

• Government arrested Annie Besant, B.P. Wadia, and George Arundale in June 1917. 
• Interment sparked nationwide protests, including renouncement of knighthood by Sir S. Subramania Aiyar. 
• Montagu Declaration in August 1917 signaled a conciliatory approach, shifting British policy. 

Montagu Declaration (August 1917): 

• Montagu’s Declaration in the House of Commons outlined the policy of increased Indian association in administration. 
• Stated a gradual move towards self-governing institutions within the British Empire. 

Home Rule Movement’s Legacy (1918): 

• Dissolution and diffusing of energies in 1918 due to multiple factors. 
• Moderates pacified by promises of reforms, Besant’s release, and opposition to civil disobedience. 
• Publication of Government reforms scheme in July 1918 further divided nationalist ranks. 

Legacy and Achievements of Home Rule Movement: 

• Created a generation of nationalists and organizational links between town and country. 
• Popularized the idea of Home Rule, generating a pro-nationalist atmosphere. 
• Paved the way for the entry of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, marking the next phase of the national movement. 

14. Gandhiji’s Early Career and Activism  

Introduction to Gandhi’s Early Years: 

• Gandhi’s first attempt at leading a nationwide struggle was in 1919 against the Rowlatt Act. 
• To understand Gandhi’s role in the Indian national movement, one must trace his story back to 1893 in South Africa. 

Gandhi’s Arrival in South Africa (1893): 

• Gandhi, a barrister, arrived in South Africa in 1893 to address legal issues for Dada Abdullah, a Gujarati merchant. 
• He was the first highly-educated Indian in South Africa, challenging racial discrimination. 

Indian Communities in South Africa: 

• Indian immigration to South Africa began in 1890, initially with indentured laborers and later including merchants. 
• Discrimination was accepted as a way of life; many Indians lacked access to education, especially in English. 

Gandhi’s Experience in South Africa: 

• Gandhi faced racial humiliations during his journey, sparking his commitment to resist discrimination. 
• He convened meetings, voiced protests through the press, and encouraged Indians to resist racial disabilities. 

Gandhi’s Leadership in South Africa: 

• As the only western-educated Indian, Gandhi became the leader for wealthy merchants due to his ability to communicate with rulers. 
• He led the ‘Moderate’ phase (1894-1906) with petitions and memorials, later transitioning to ‘Gandhian’ methods of passive resistance. 

Phases of Struggle in South Africa: 

• Moderate Phase (1894-1906): 
• Focused on petitions, organizations, and publicity. 
• Established Natal Indian Congress and Indian Opinion newspaper. 

Satyagraha Phase (1906 onwards): 

• Used passive resistance against laws like compulsory registration and restrictions on Indian immigration. 
• Gandhiji and others faced imprisonment, deportation, and harsh conditions but persisted in the struggle. 

Challenges and Negotiations in South Africa: 

• Facing brutal force, Satyagrahis continued the struggle, but some showed signs of fatigue. 
• Through negotiations, an agreement was reached in 1911, but broken promises led to the resumption of Satyagraha in 1913. 

Tolstoy Farm and Support: 

• To support Satyagrahis, Tolstoy Farm was established with contributions from India, including funds from Sir Ratan Tata. 

End of Struggle and Lessons from South Africa: 

• In 1914, an agreement was reached, conceding major Indian demands. 
• Gandhi’s South African experience prepared him for leading the Indian national struggle. 

Return to India (1915): 

• Gandhi returned to India, well-known for his work in South Africa. 
• Gokhale praised his qualities and foresaw his ability to turn ordinary men into heroes and martyrs. 

Early Work in India: 

• Initially refrained from taking a public stand on political issues. 
• Traveled, organized his ashram in Ahmedabad, and observed local struggles in Champaran, Ahmedabad, and Kheda. 

Champaran, Ahmedabad, and Kheda Struggles: 

• Champaran: Fought for indigo farmers, highlighted injustice through investigation and nonviolent resistance. 
• Ahmedabad: Supported textile workers, led a strike, and used fasting to achieve a compromise. 
• Kheda: Supported peasants facing crop failure, advocated nonpayment of land revenue, and achieved partial success. 

Impact of Local Struggles: 

• Demonstrated Gandhi’s political style and method. 
• Built a reservoir of goodwill and experience among the people. 

Rowlatt Satyagraha (1919): 

• Called for a nationwide protest against the Rowlatt Acts. 
• Initially led to violence, especially in Punjab, with the tragic incident at Jallianwala Bagh. 

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre: 

• General Dyer ordered firing on an unarmed crowd in Jallianwala Bagh during Baisakhi celebrations. 
• Hundreds were killed, leading to widespread shock and condemnation. 

Outcome and Gandhi’s Response: 

• Repression intensified, Punjab under martial law, and Amritsar faced indignities. 
• Gandhi withdrew the movement in April 1919 but retained faith in nonviolent Satyagraha. 

Launch of Non-Cooperation Movement (1920): 

• The Jallianwala Bagh tragedy contributed to the launch of the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1920, expanding the scale of resistance. 

15. The Non – Cooperation Movement – 1920 – 22  

• Backdrop of Discontent (1919): The discontent in India was fueled by various factors, including the Rowlatt Act, the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, martial law in Punjab, and the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, which failed to satisfy the Indian populace. 
• Muslim Discontent: Indian Muslims were upset when promises made by the British during World War I regarding generous treatment of Turkey were not fulfilled. The Muslims, who considered the Caliph of Turkey as their spiritual head, were disappointed when Turkey’s control over holy places was not maintained. 
• Gandhi’s Involvement: Mahatma Gandhi, sympathetic to the Khilafat leaders, proposed a program of non-violent non-cooperation in February 1920 to protest the government’s behavior. The Khilafat Committee accepted the suggestion in June 1920 and asked Gandhi to lead the movement. 
• Congress Skepticism: The Indian National Congress, disillusioned with constitutional means, considered non-cooperation in response to the Hunter Committee Report, which downplayed the severity of the Punjab disturbances. 
• Economic Distress: Widespread economic distress, including high prices, food shortages, drought, and epidemics, added to the grievances of different sections of society, both urban and rural. 
• Launch of Non-Cooperation Movement (August 1920): The Non-Cooperation Movement was officially launched on August 1, 1920. The movement gained momentum after the Congress accepted non-cooperation as its own during its special session in Calcutta in September 1920. 
• Program of Non-Cooperation: The non-cooperation program included surrendering titles and honors, boycotting government-affiliated institutions, foreign cloth, and law courts. It also encouraged the establishment of national schools, promotion of hand-spinning and weaving, and Hindu-Muslim unity. 
• Changes in Congress Structure: The Congress underwent significant changes, with the introduction of a Working Committee, organizational restructuring based on linguistic divisions, and the formation of village and mohalla committees to increase mass involvement.  
• Boycott of Law Courts: Lawyers boycotted law courts, but this was not as successful as the educational boycott. Many prominent lawyers sacrificed lucrative practices, and Bengal led in terms of participation. 
• Boycott of Foreign Cloth: A highly successful aspect of the movement was the boycott of foreign cloth. Volunteers collected foreign-made clothes, and bonfires were lit to burn them. Picketing of shops selling foreign cloth also took place, leading to a significant reduction in the import of foreign cloth. 
• Educational Boycott: The educational boycott was highly successful, with students leaving schools and colleges as part of the non-cooperation movement. 
• Khilafat Movement: The Khilafat Movement, led by Mohammad Ali, gained momentum, and leaders declared it “religiously unlawful for Muslims to continue in the British Army.” This led to widespread arrests and protests. 
• Prince of Wales’ Visit: The visit of the Prince of Wales in 1921 was met with hartals (strikes) and protests. Clashes occurred, resulting in casualties and violence. 
• Chauri Chaura Incident: The Chauri Chaura incident in 1922, where a protest turned violent and resulted in the death of 22 policemen, led to Mahatma Gandhi’s decision to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement. This decision was controversial, with some critics arguing that it was motivated by a fear of radical forces and a desire to protect property interests. 
• Assessment of the Movement: Despite the withdrawal, the Non-Cooperation Movement was deemed successful in demonstrating mass support and breaking the notion that the desire for national freedom was limited to the educated and wealthy. The movement also showcased communal unity among Hindus and Muslims, although this unity would face challenges in later years. 
• Criticism of Gandhi’s Decision: Gandhi’s decision to withdraw the movement was criticized by some, including Motilal Nehru and Jawaharlal Nehru, who questioned why the entire country had to pay the price for the violence in Chauri Chaura. Some critics suggested that the withdrawal was aimed at preventing the movement from turning radical and to protect the interests of landlords and capitalists. 
• Legacy of the Movement: Despite the withdrawal, the Non-Cooperation Movement left a lasting impact. It revealed the capacity of the masses to engage in nationalist politics and set the stage for future struggles against British rule in India. 
• Success of Non-Cooperation Movement: The movement gained widespread support, with students leaving schools and colleges, and the educational boycott being particularly successful in Bengal. The Swadeshi spirit was revived, and various regions across the country actively participated in the movement. 
• Congress Reorientation: The Congress reoriented its goal from attaining self-government through constitutional means to achieving Swaraj (self-rule) through peaceful and legitimate methods. The organization’s structure was streamlined and democratized to facilitate effective mass involvement. 

16. Peasant Movements and Nationalism in the 1920s

Kisan Sabha and Eka Movements in Avadh (U.P.) 

• Background: After the annexation of Avadh in 1856, the taluqdars (big landlords) strengthened their hold over the agrarian society, leading to oppression with exorbitant rents, illegal levies, and arbitrary ejectments. 
• Formation of Kisan Sabha: The active members of the Home Rule League initiated the organization of peasants into Kisan Sabhas. The U.P. Kisan Sabha was established in February 1918, demonstrating significant activity and expanding rapidly. 
• Leadership Emergence: Baba Ramchandra, a Brahmin from Maharashtra, became a prominent leader of the peasants in Avadh. His arrest in August 1920 triggered a massive gathering of peasants, and subsequent events led to the formation of the Oudh Kisan Sabha. 
• Non-Cooperation Movement: While the Indian National Congress in Calcutta chose the path of non-cooperation, differences arose within the U.P. Kisan Sabha. The Non-cooperators set up an alternative Oudh Kisan Sabha, integrating grassroots Kisan Sabhas. 
• Change in Peasant Activity (1921): In January 1921, peasant activity shifted to looting bazaars, houses, and clashes with the police in districts like Rae Bareli and Fyzabad. The government suppressed these outbreaks using force and the Seditious Meetings Act. 
• Outcome: The movement faced severe repression, and by the end of January 1921, it declined. The Oudh Rent (Amendment) Act was passed, providing little relief to tenants but contributing to the decline of the movement. 

Eka Movement in Avadh (U.P.) 

• Centers of Activity: Peasant discontent resurfaced in Avadh towards the end of 1921, particularly in districts like Hardoi, Bahraich, and Sitapur. The movement was named the Eka or unity movement. 
• Leadership and Grievances: Congress and Khilafat leaders initially influenced the movement, focusing on issues like high rents, oppressive landlord exactions, and share-rents. 
• Grassroots Leadership: The movement developed its grassroots leadership with figures like Madari Pasi. Unlike the earlier Kisan Sabha movement, the Eka Movement included small zamindars disenchanted with heavy land revenue demands. 
• Repression (1922): The authorities’ severe repression, coupled with communal differences and lack of discipline in non-violence, led to the decline of the Eka Movement by March 1922. 

Mappila Rebellion in Malabar (Kerala) 

• Background: The Mappila tenants rebelled against oppressive landlord practices, lack of security of tenure, and high rents in Malabar in August 1921. 
• Congress Support: The Malabar District Congress Conference in April 1920 supported the tenants’ cause, and tenants’ associations were formed. The Khilafat Movement and tenants’ meetings merged, and their leaders were arrested. 
• Repression and Communalization: British repression, martial law, and the involvement of Hindus in assisting the authorities led to the rebellion taking a communal turn. Forced conversions and attacks on Hindus increased. 
• Outcome: By December 1921, the Mappila Rebellion was suppressed, with significant casualties among the Mappilas. The rebellion’s communalization isolated the Mappilas from the Non-Cooperation Movement and broader political activities. 
• Kisan Sabha and Eka Movements in Avadh (U.P.): The text describes the agrarian situation in Avadh, characterized by the dominance of big landlords (taluqdars) who oppressed cultivators with high rents, illegal levies, and arbitrary ejectments. The discontent among peasants was fueled by the high prices of essentials after World War I. The U.P. Kisan Sabha was established in 1918, with leaders like Gauri Shankar Misra and Indra Narain Dwivedi. The movement gained momentum, leading to the formation of the Oudh Kisan Sabha. However, the movement turned violent in 1921, with looting and clashes with the police. The government suppressed the outbreaks, and the movement declined, with the Seditious Meetings Act and the Oudh Rent (Amendment) Act being implemented. 
• Mappila Rebellion in Malabar: The Mappila rebellion erupted in Malabar in 1921, led by Muslim tenants (Mappilas) against oppressive landlord exactions. The movement gained momentum through the synergy of the Malabar District Congress Conference, the Khilafat Movement, and the visits of prominent leaders like Gandhi, Shaukat Ali, and Maulana Azad. However, government repression and the communalization of the rebellion led to its decline. The Mappilas suffered heavy casualties, and their participation in politics decreased significantly. 
• Bardoli Satyagraha in Gujarat (1928): The Bardoli Satyagraha was a response to a proposed 30% increase in land revenue in Bardoli taluq. The region had been politically active since the Non-Cooperation Movement. The constitutional leaders’ efforts resulted in a reduction of the increase to 21.97%, but dissatisfaction persisted. Sardar Patel, a veteran leader, took charge, organizing an effective nonviolent resistance. The movement involved propaganda, mobilization of women and students, and social pressure to ensure unity. The government, facing public unrest and political opposition, eventually appointed an independent tribunal, which reduced the enhancement to 6.03%. The Bardoli Satyagraha showcased the effectiveness of nonviolent resistance. 

17. The Indian Working Class and the National Movement  

Introduction of the Modern Worker in India (19th Century): 

• Emergence in the second half of the 19th century with the growth of modern industry, railways, and communication networks. 
• Linked to the Indian national movement and the concept of the Indian ‘people.’ 

Early Worker Agitations (Pre-Nationalist Involvement): 

• Strikes in textile mills, railways, and plantations were sporadic, spontaneous, and lacked wider political implications. 
• Philanthropic efforts in the 1870s to improve worker conditions were not part of an organized movement. 

Nationalist Indifference to Labor Issues (Initial Phase): 

• Early nationalists were initially indifferent to labor issues to maintain unity in the anti-imperialist movement. 
• The focus on the primary task of opposing British rule delayed attention to workers’ concerns. 

Nationalist Differentiation in Worker Support: 

• Nationalists initially differentiated between workers in European and Indian enterprises. 
• Support for labor issues increased when workers were employed in British-owned enterprises. 

Swadeshi Movement and Shift in Labor Movement (1903-1908): 

• Swadeshi upsurge marked a shift from economic issues to political involvement. 
• Rise of “professional agitators” and the organization of labor into strikes and trade unions. 

Role of Nationalists in Labor Struggles (1903-1908): 

• Swadeshi leaders actively involved in organizing stable trade unions, legal aid, and supporting strikes. 
• Workers’ involvement in wider political movements became a significant feature. 

Labor Movement during Bengal Partition (1905): 

• Working-class strikes and protests accompanied the national upsurge against the partition of Bengal. 
• Workers from various sectors participated, expressing solidarity and protest. 

Impact of Swadeshi Movement on Labor Attitudes: 

• Shift from purely economic issues to involvement in broader political issues during the Swadeshi period. 

Socialist Influence and Decline of the Labor Movement (Post-1908): 

• Faint beginnings of socialist ideas among radical nationalist leaders influenced by Marxism. 
• Decline in the nationalist mass upsurge after 1908 led to an eclipse in the labor movement. 

Revival of Labor Movement (Post World War I): 

• Resurgence of working-class activity during the Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Movement (1920-22). 
• Formation of the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) in 1920 marked a significant development. 

Role of AITUC and Nationalist Integration (1920): 

• AITUC formed with the involvement of leaders like Lokamanya Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai. 
• AITUC manifesto emphasized the need for workers to organize and participate in nationalist politics. 

Call for Economic Freedom and Political Involvement: 

• AITUC urged workers to consider political freedom as worthless without economic freedom. 
• The manifesto emphasized the interconnection of workers with the broader national freedom movement. 

Swadeshi Movement (1905-1908): 

• The labor movement during the Swadeshi days was characterized by early attempts to form all-India unions. 
• Workers started shifting from economic issues to broader political involvement, aligning themselves with nationalist movements. 

Labor Movement during Swadeshi Days: 

• The 1905 national upsurge against the partition of Bengal saw significant working-class strikes and hartals. 
• Workers participated in strikes for various reasons, including support for nationalist causes and symbols like Bande Mataram. 

Emergence of Socialist Ideas: 

• A socialist inclination began among some radical nationalist leaders who were influenced by contemporary Marxist and social democratic forces in Europe. 
• Lala Lajpat Rai linked capitalism with imperialism and emphasized the role of the working class in fighting this combination. 

Formation of All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) in 1920: 

• The labor movement regained momentum after World War I, with the formation of AITUC. 
• Nationalist leaders like Lokamanya Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai played a crucial role in its establishment. 
• The AITUC urged workers to organize nationally and actively participate in nationalist politics. 

Working Class and Nationalist Politics (1920-1922): 

• Workers actively participated in major national political events, including strikes during the Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Movement. 

Impact of Left Ideology (1920s-1930s): 

• Left ideologies gained strength, leading to the formation of the Workers’ and Peasants’ Parties (WPP). 
• Communist influence in the trade union movement increased, especially in Bombay. 

Setbacks (Late 1920s-1930s): 

• The labor movement faced setbacks due to repressive laws, the Meerut Conspiracy Case, and the shift in Communist policy. 
• There was a decline in working-class activity between 1931 and 1936. 

Revival and World War II: 

• The labor movement revived in the late 1930s, aligning with the emerging Left consolidation within the Congress. 
• World War II saw workers participating in anti-war strikes and later facing a shift in Communist policy. 

Quit India Movement (1942): 

• Despite Communist opposition, workers participated in strikes and hartals following the Quit India Movement. 

Post-War Period (1945-1947): 

• A resurgence in working-class activity, with workers participating in post-war political movements and demonstrations. 
• Notable actions included the Bombay workers’ strike and hartal in solidarity with the naval mutiny. 

Anticipation of Independence: 

• The last years of colonial rule witnessed an increase in economic issue-based strikes as workers anticipated the benefits of independence. 

18. The Struggles for Gurdwara Reform and Temple Entry  

Akali Movement Overview: 

• Emerged as a religious movement but evolved into a significant episode in India’s freedom struggle. 
• Focused on freeing Sikh temples (Gurdwaras) from corrupt control of mahants (priests) and government interference. 
• Extended beyond religious reforms to confront colonial authorities, merging with the anti-imperialist struggle. 

Background and Corruption in Gurdwaras: 

• Gurdwaras endowed with land and funds during the 18th and 19th centuries. 
• Udasi Sikh mahants controlled Gurdwaras, corruption spread, treating offerings as personal income. 
• Post-British annexation (1849), government-nominated managers collaborated with mahants, promoting loyalism. 

Formation of Shiromani Gurdwara Prabhandak Committee (SGPC) and Akali Dal: 

• In 1920, SGPC formed to manage Gurdwaras, with Akali Dal established as the organizing body. 
• Non-violence adopted as a creed, influenced by the Non-Cooperation Movement led by Mahatma Gandhi. 

Nankana Tragedy and National Integration: 

• Violence erupted in Nankana in 1921, leading to casualties among Akalis. 
• Tragedy heightened Sikh consciousness, gained support from national leaders like Gandhi, Shaukat Ali, and Lajpat Rai. 
• Government’s policy changed due to emerging integration of Akali movement with the national movement. 

Strategic Shifts and Victories: 

• Akalis shifted policy, broadening the movement to root out government interference in religious places. 
• Victories included the ‘Keys Affair’ and the SGPC gaining control over the Golden Temple. 
• Akalis extended the struggle to non-cooperation, boycott of foreign goods, and substitution of panchayats for British courts. 

Guru-Ka-Bagh Gurdwara Struggle: 

• Conflict in Guru-Ka-Bagh Gurdwara became a focal point of non-violent resistance against government oppression. 
• Government’s brutal crackdown led to widespread outrage, with national leaders condemning the action. 
• Government eventually backed down, releasing arrested Akali volunteers and reaching a compromise. 

Legacy and Political Impact: 

• Akali Movement contributed to Punjab’s political development, replacing pro-British feudal leadership with middle-class nationalists. 
• United Sikhs, Hindus, and Muslims in a non-communal struggle for liberation. 
• Political divisions emerged post-Gurdwara reforms, with Akali Dal vacillating between nationalist and loyalist politics. 

Post-1947 Consequences: 

• Akali Movement divided into streams aligning with Unionist Party, mainstream nationalist movements, and Sikh communalism. 
• Ideological shift towards political separation from Hindus and Muslims influenced post-1947 politics.

Congress and Social Reform (Till 1917): 

• Congress refrained from addressing social reform issues until 1917, fearing disruption of political unity. 
• Lokamanya Tilak denounced untouchability around the same time, but no concrete actions were taken. 

Congress’s Change of Position (1917): 

• In 1917, Congress reversed its stance, passed a resolution urging removal of disabilities on the depressed classes. 
• Gandhi prioritized untouchability removal, considering it as crucial as the political struggle for freedom. 

Congress Initiatives (1923): 

• In 1923, Congress actively started efforts to eradicate untouchability, focusing on educating and mobilizing caste Hindus. 
• Two significant struggles in Kerala symbolized the nationalist challenge against untouchability. 

• Kerala’s Social Disabilities: 

• Kerala faced acute social disabilities, including untouchability and distance pollution, particularly affecting the depressed classes (avarnas or Harijans). 
• Reformers like Sri Narayan Guru, N. Kumaran Asan, and T.K. Madhavan had been fighting against these issues since the late 19th century. 

Vaikom Satyagraha (1924): 

• Kerala Provincial Congress Committee (KPCC) launched Satyagraha at Vaikom to defy untouchability rules. 
• Goal was to open Hindu temples and public roads to avarnas or Harijans. 
• Satyagraha stirred enthusiasm nationwide, with support from various organizations and leaders. 

National Response and Gandhi’s Involvement (1925): 

• Akali jatha, led by Sikhs, arrived from Punjab to support Vaikom Satyagraha. 
• E.V. Ramaswami Naicker (Periyar) led a jatha from Madurai, gaining national attention. 
• Gandhi visited Kerala in 1925, leading to a compromise where some temple roads were opened to avarnas. 

Post-1924 Anti-Untouchability Movement: 

• Struggle against untouchability continued as part of Gandhian constructive programs. 
• Kerala remained a hotbed for the movement, with extensive campaigns and support. 

Guruvayur Temple Entry (1931-32): 

• KPCC, led by K. Kelappan, initiated a temple entry Satyagraha at Guruvayur in 1931. 
• Sixteen volunteers marched, demanding entry for all Hindus irrespective of caste. 
• The movement gained widespread popularity, with mass participation and support from various leaders. 

Fast Unto Death (1932): 

• In 1932, K. Kelappan went on a fast unto death before the Guruvayur temple. 
• Nation stirred, but a compromise was reached where roads around the temple were opened to avarnas. 
• Temple entry campaign continued with vigor. 

Legacy and Broader Impact: 

• Success of Guruvayur Satyagraha seen in broader social change and transformation. 
• Provinces under Congress rule, like Travancore and Madras, opened government-controlled temples to all Hindus. 
• Temple entry campaign contributed to mass education, mobilization, and inspired social change, especially among the youth. 

Weakness and Ongoing Caste Issues: 

• Gandhian approach focused on untouchability but lacked a strategy to end the caste system. 
• Strengths of the national movement reflected in the Constitution of independent India, abolishing caste inequality and outlawing untouchability. 
• Weakness seen in the persistence of casteism and continued oppression against lower castes in post-1947 India. 

19. The Years of Stagnation – Swarajists, No – Changers and Gandhiji  

• Non-Cooperation Movement Withdrawal (February 1922): The withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement in February 1922 led to the arrest of Mahatma Gandhi in March and his subsequent imprisonment for spreading disaffection against the Government. 
• Council-Entry Proposal (December 1922): After the withdrawal, leaders like C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru proposed a new political strategy. They advocated ending the boycott of legislative councils, entering them, and obstructing their work as a form of extended non-cooperation. 
• Formation of Swaraj Party (January 1923): The proposal to enter the councils was opposed by leaders like Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad, and C. Rajagopalachari. The proposal was defeated, leading to the resignation of Das and Motilal, who then formed the Congress-Khilafat Swaraj Party, later known as the Swaraj Party. 
• Swaraj Party Strategy: The Swaraj Party participated in elections, aiming to present national demands for self-government in the councils. If rejected, they planned to obstruct council proceedings, aiming to make the government through the councils impossible. 
• Leadership and Characteristics: C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru, both successful lawyers, formed a legendary political combination. Das was emotional and an orator, while Motilal was analytical and an organizer. Despite differences, they trusted each other. 
• Pro-Changers vs. No-Changers: Pro-changers (Swarajists) believed in council-entry and obstruction, while no-changers (led by Gandhi) insisted on the continuation of boycott and non-cooperation, with quiet preparations for future civil disobedience. 
• Controversy and Unity Efforts: Fierce controversies arose between pro-changers and no-changers, leading to fears of a split. Pressure mounted on leaders to maintain unity. Ultimately, leaders started moving towards mutual accommodation. 
• Delhi Congress Session (September 1923): In a special session, the Congress suspended propaganda against council-entry, allowing Congressmen to stand as candidates and exercise their franchise in forthcoming elections. 
• Release of Gandhi (February 1924): Gandhi, released from jail in 1924, opposed council-entry and obstruction, fearing inconsistency with non-violent non-cooperation. A split in the Congress seemed imminent. 
• Gandhi’s Accommodation with Swarajists: Gandhi, despite differences, sought accommodation with the Swarajists. He recognized their determination and refused public opposition to council-entry, avoiding a split in the Congress. 
• Joint Statement (November 1924): Gandhi, Das, and Motilal signed a joint statement in November 1924, stating that the Swarajist Party would work in the legislatures on behalf of the Congress. 
• Swarajist Electoral Success (November 1923): In the 1923 elections, Swarajists performed well, winning seats in the Central Legislative Assembly and various provinces. 
• Council-Entry Impact: The Swarajists’ strategy aimed to transform legislatures into arenas of political struggle, not as organs for gradual transformation. No-changers opposed council-entry, fearing neglect of constructive work, loss of revolutionary zeal, and political corruption. 
• Swarajists’ Achievements in Legislatures: Swarajists in legislatures engaged in effective political struggle, outvoting the Government, and exposing the limitations of the reformed councils. They demanded constitutional advances, civil liberties, and support for indigenous industries. 
• Swarajist Withdrawal (1930): The Swaraj Party eventually withdrew from legislatures in 1930 as a result of the Lahore Congress resolution and the beginning of civil disobedience. 
• Gandhian Constructive Work (1922-27): While the Swarajists engaged in parliamentary politics, the no-changers, including Gandhi, focused on constructive work. This included khadi promotion, national education, Hindu-Muslim unity, and the struggle against untouchability. 
• Achievements of Constructive Work: Constructive work served as a major channel for recruiting freedom fighters, provided practical training, and developed organizational capacity. It also uplifted lower castes and Adivasis and symbolized the determination to be free. 
• Challenges and Frustrations (1927): Factionalism and indiscipline plagued both the Swarajists and the Gandhian camp. By 1927, an atmosphere of apathy and frustration prevailed, but forces of nationalism were regrouping. 
• Youth Power and Simon Commission: The rise of youth power and the national response to the Simon Commission indicated the reawakening of nationalist forces, setting the stage for future struggles. 

20. Bhagat Singh, Surya Sen and the Revolutionary Nationalists  

• Revolutionary Nationalists suppressed during World War I. 
• Released under general amnesty in early 1920 for Montagu-Chelmsford reforms.
• Non-Cooperation Movement launched by National Congress. 
• Revolutionary Nationalists joined or suspended activities for Gandhian movement. 
• Suspension of Non-Cooperation Movement led to disillusionment among youth. 
• Two strands of revolutionary nationalism developed in Punjab, U.P., Bihar, and Bengal. 
• Influences: working-class trade unionism, Russian Revolution, Communist groups. 
• Hindustan Republican Association founded in Kanpur in October 1924. 
• Kakori Robbery in 1925 as a major action of HRA. 
• Kakori Conspiracy Case resulted in arrests, trials, and executions.
• Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (Army) formed in September 1928. 
• Lala Lajpat Rai’s death led to individual assassination by Bhagat Singh and others. 
• Central Legislative Assembly bombing by Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutt in 1929. 
• Trials and imprisonment of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Rajguru, and others. 
• Chittagong Armoury Raid in 1930 led by Surya Sen and associates. 
• Impact of the raid on revolutionary activity in Bengal. 
• Increased participation of young women in revolutionary activities. 
• Bhagat Singh’s shift towards Marxism and broad-based mass movements. 
• Bhagat Singh’s contributions to secularism, opposition to communalism. 
• Bhagat Singh’s critique of religion and superstition, advocacy of atheism. 
• Government actions led to a decline in revolutionary nationalist ranks. 
• End of Revolutionary Nationalism in Punjab, U.P., Bihar, and Bengal. 
• Rethinking in jails and Andamans, with many joining Marxist and Gandhian movements. 
• Contribution of Revolutionary Nationalists to spreading nationalist and socialist consciousness. 

21. The Gathering Storm 1927 – 1929  

Post Non-Cooperation Movement: 

• Nationalism sustained by constructive workers, Swarajists, Koya tribals, Akalis, Satyagrahis, and others. 
• From 1927, mass anti-imperialist upsurge gains momentum. 

Simon Commission (1927): 

• British announcement of an all-White commission triggers protest. 
• Call for boycott endorsed by various groups, including the Indian National Congress. 
• Widespread protests, black-flag demonstrations, clashes with police. 
• Lathi charges and violence against protesters, including prominent leaders. 

Civil Disobedience Movement (1928-29): 

• Simon boycott movement precedes the call for civil disobedience. 
• Lahore Session of Congress in December 1929. 
• Jawaharlal Nehru elected as Congress President. 
• Declaration of ‘Purna Swaraj’ (Complete Independence) on December 31, 1929. 
• Independence Pledge and hoisting of the national flag on January 26, 1930. 

Preparations and Developments: 

• Gandhiji’s mass contact tours to prepare for the future struggle. 
• Congress Working Committee’s Foreign Cloth Boycott Committee. 
• Arrests of labor leaders, Bhagat Singh’s actions, and the hunger strike. 
• Labour Government in Britain in 1929; announcement of Round Table Conference. 
• Delhi manifesto demands a clear purpose for the Round Table Conference. 
• Lord Irwin’s announcement on the implicit right to Dominion Status in 1917. 

Nehru Report (1928): 

• All-Parties Conference and the Nehru Report (Motilal Nehru as the principal author). 
• Rejection of separate communal electorates, seats reserved for Muslims in the minority. 
• Universal adult suffrage, equal rights for women, freedom to form unions. 
• Muslim League split; Jinnah’s ‘Fourteen Points’ counter Nehru Report. 

Congress Split and Nehru’s Leadership: 

• Split between secular leaders supporting Nehru Report and those favoring ‘Fourteen Points.’ 
• Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Bose, and Satyamurthi press for ‘Purna Swaraj.’ 
• Gandhiji’s insistence on youth leadership; Jawaharlal Nehru becomes Congress President. 

Civil Disobedience Preparations: 

• Public burning of foreign cloth initiated by Gandhiji in Calcutta. 
• Gandhiji cancels European tour, emphasizes preparations for civil disobedience. 
• Mass meetings, foreign cloth boycott, and public burning across the country. 

Independence Pledge (January 26, 1930): 

• Public meetings affirm Independence Pledge. 
• Pledge highlights economic exploitation, political oppression, cultural disruption, and spiritual disarmament. 
• Declaration of intent for civil disobedience and non-payment of taxes. 

Gandhiji’s Tours and Leadership: 

• Gandhiji’s extensive mass contact tours to various regions. 
• Emphasis on constructive program, khadi, Hindu-Muslim unity, and political action. 
• Gandhiji’s role in initiating and popularizing civil disobedience preparations. 

Legacy and Conclusion: 

• Lahore Session of Congress marks a critical year of mass struggle. 
• Jawaharlal Nehru’s presidency, declaration of ‘Purna Swaraj,’ and the Independence Pledge set the stage for the Civil Disobedience Movement. 

22. Civil Disobedience 1930 – 1931  

• Background and Authorization: The Labore Congress of 1929 authorized the Working Committee to initiate civil disobedience, including non-payment of taxes, and called for the resignation of members of legislatures. 
• Gandhi’s Authority: In February 1930, the Working Committee empowered Mahatma Gandhi to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement at his discretion. 
• Choice of Salt as a Symbol: Gandhi focused on salt as a symbol of resistance, stating that the salt tax was a particularly oppressive form of taxation affecting even the poorest. 
• Dandi March Plan: Gandhi and a group of seventy-eight members planned a 240-mile march from Ahmedabad to Dandi, breaking the salt laws by collecting salt from the beach. 
• Significance of Salt March: The Dandi March aimed to be a non-violent protest against the salt laws. Thousands joined in anticipation, and the march generated widespread attention and support. 
• Civil Disobedience Strategy: Gandhi emphasized non-violent civil disobedience, including non-payment of taxes, picketing liquor and foreign-cloth shops, lawyers giving up practice, and government servants resigning. 
• Spread of Movement: The movement quickly gained momentum across India. Leaders like C. Rajagopalachari and K. Kelappan initiated salt marches in different regions. 
• Government’s Dilemma: The British government faced a dilemma, unsure whether to suppress the movement and risk appearing repressive or allow it to continue and undermine their authority. 
• Gandhi’s Arrest: On May 4, 1930, the Viceroy ordered Gandhi’s arrest. This move sparked massive protests, particularly in Bombay, and led to clashes with the police. 
• Sholapur Uprising: The textile workers in Sholapur went on strike, leading to widespread unrest. The city saw attacks on symbols of government authority. 
• Dharasana Salt Works: The Dharasana Salt Works raid, led by Sarojini Naidu and others, showcased non-violent resistance. Satyagrahis faced brutal police attacks, emphasizing their commitment. 
• Mass Participation: The movement extended beyond salt Satyagraha, encompassing boycotts of foreign cloth and liquor, refusal to pay certain taxes, and actions against chowkidars. 
• Role of Women and Youth: Women played a crucial role in boycotting foreign goods, and students and youth actively participated in enforcing the boycotts. 
• Repression and Resilience: The government responded with repression, confiscations, and torture, but this often fueled more significant support for the movement. 
• Shifts in Strategies: Due to the monsoon, the focus shifted to anti-chowkidara and anti-Union Board agitation in some regions, highlighting the adaptability of the movement. 
• No-Tax Movements: No-tax movements, such as the refusal to pay land revenue in Gujarat and Bengal, demonstrated the resilience and determination of the people. 
• Vallabhbhai Patel’s Involvement: Vallabhbhai Patel actively supported the peasants in Gujarat, encouraging their resistance against oppressive measures. 

 
Background: 

• The Labore Congress of 1929 authorized the Working Committee to launch a civil disobedience program, including non-payment of taxes and resignation of legislators’ seats. 
• In February 1930, at Sabarmati Ashram, Gandhiji was given full powers to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement. 

Choice of Salt as Symbolic Action: 

• Gandhiji chose salt as a symbol, emphasizing its essential nature and the inhumanity of taxing it. 
• On March 2, 1930, he addressed a letter to the Viceroy, explaining the reasons for considering British rule a curse and announcing his plan to break the salt laws. 

Dandi March: 

• Gandhiji, along with 78 members, marched from Ahmedabad to Dandi, covering 240 miles. 
• The plan was to break the salt laws by collecting salt from the beach at Dandi. 

Mass Participation and Spread: 

• Thousands anticipated the march at Sabarmati Ashram, and news of the movement spread across the country. 
• Gandhiji explained the power of civil disobedience, urging widespread participation to tire out the government. 

Launch of Civil Disobedience Movement: 

• On April 6, 1930, Gandhiji picked up a handful of salt at Dandi, inaugurating the Civil Disobedience Movement. 
• The movement achieved country-wide mass participation. 

Preparations and Forms of Protest: 

• Congress leaders prepared for the movement by enrolling volunteers, forming committees, collecting funds, and spreading the nationalist message. 
• The defiance of salt laws led to various forms of protest, including marches, picketing, and boycotts of foreign cloth and liquor. 

Nationwide Impact: 

• The movement spread to different regions, with leaders like C. Rajagopalachari in Tamil Nadu and K. Kelappan in Malabar leading salt marches. 
• In the North West Frontier Province, the Khudai Khidmatgars played an active role in the protests. 

Government Dilemma: 

• The British government faced a dilemma on how to handle the non-violent civil disobedience, fearing the consequences of suppression or non-interference. 

Government Response and Repression: 

• The government’s initial strategy was uncertain, leading to repression in various regions. 
• Gandhiji’s arrest on May 4, 1930, prompted massive protests, and the government’s attempts to suppress the movement faced resistance. 

Wave of Protest and Unrest: 

• Protests escalated in various cities, with notable incidents in Peshawar and Sholapur, where the city was virtually taken over by demonstrators. 
• The movement brought together diverse groups, including peasants, workers, students, and women. 

New Forms of Protest: 

• Defiance of forest laws, protests against the Cunningham circular in Assam, and the defense of the national flag became widespread. 
• The movement popularized various forms of mobilization, such as prabhat pheris, patrikas, and magic lantern shows. 

No-Revenue No-Rent Campaign in U.P.: 

• A campaign was initiated in Uttar Pradesh, calling on zamindars to refuse revenue payments to the government, leading to a struggle against both landlords and the government. 

Government Ambivalence: 

• The government responded with ordinances curbing civil liberties and the banning of civil disobedience organizations. 
• The Viceroy’s conciliatory gesture in July 1930 suggested a Round Table Conference, and talks were initiated. 

Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931): 

• Gandhiji and Lord Irwin signed the Gandhi-Irwin Pact in March 1931, leading to the end of the Civil Disobedience Movement. 
• The pact included the release of political prisoners, the return of confiscated lands, and concessions on salt production. 

Mixed Reactions and Controversies: 

• The pact generated controversy, with some viewing it as a betrayal and others as a tactical move by Gandhiji. 
• Gandhiji’s refusal to make the pact conditional on the commutation of Bhagat Singh’s death sentence sparked debates. 

Impact and Legacy: 

• The movement left a lasting impact on Indian society, politicizing various groups and regions. 
• The mass participation and recognition gained through the pact boosted the morale of the Indian independence movement. 

Women’s Liberation: 

• The movement marked a significant entry of Indian women into the public space, contributing to their liberation. 

Conclusion: 

• The Civil Disobedience Movement of 1930-31 marked a critical phase in the struggle for Indian independence, with mass participation, diverse forms of protest, and a lasting impact on Indian society. 

23. From Karachi to Wardha: The Years from 1932 – 1934  

Background of the Karachi Congress Session (1931): 

• Held on 29 March 1931 to endorse the Gandhi-Irwin or Delhi Pact. 
• Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru were executed six days earlier. 
• Public anger, especially among the youth, over Gandhi’s acceptance of the Pact. 

Congress Resolution at Karachi: 

• Congress dissociated from political violence but admired the bravery of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru. 
• Endorsed the Delhi Pact and reiterated the goal of Purna Swaraj (complete independence). 

Memorable Resolutions: 

• Defined Fundamental Rights and National Economic Programme. 
• Declared Swaraj must include real economic freedom. 
• Guaranteed civil rights, equality, universal adult franchise, economic reforms, and state ownership of key industries. 

London Round Table Conference (RTC) 1931): 

• Gandhiji attended to seek Indian independence. 
• British government, led by Churchill, opposed concessions. 
• Labourite Ramsay MacDonald’s weak cabinet dominated by conservatives. 

Government’s Shift in Policy: 

• Lessons from the Delhi Pact led to a reversal of policies. 
• Government determined to resist any concessions to Congress. 
• No pacts, no truces, and no quarter for the enemy became the policy. 

Civil Disobedience Movement (1932): 

• Gandhiji’s return marked by government ordinances for martial law. 
• Congress resumed civil disobedience; Gandhiji arrested in January 1932. 
• Massive public response, over 80,000 Satyagrahis jailed in four months. 

Government Repression: 

• Congress declared illegal, offices seized, Ashrams occupied. 
• Severe repression in various regions, especially against no-tax campaigns. 
• Atrocities on prisoners, whipping as punishment, suppression of the press. 

End of the Movement (1934): 

• Movement effectively crushed within a few months. 
• Gandhiji withdrew the movement in April 1934. 
• Despite setbacks, the hiatus allowed for rest and regrouping. 

Outcome and Impact: 

• Frustration among political activists, but public support remained. 
• Heroes’ welcome for released prisoners in 1934. 
• Congress won a majority in six out of eleven provinces in the 1937 elections. 

Gandhiji’s Harijan Campaign (1932-1934): 

• Opposition to Communal Award and separate electorates. 
• Poona Pact reached, abandoning separate electorates for Depressed Classes. 
• Gandhiji’s fasts and intensive Harijan tour to eradicate untouchability. 
• Stress on humanism, reason, and atonement for caste Hindus. 

Communal Award (1932): 

• Separate electorates for minorities, including Depressed Classes. 
• Congress opposed separate electorates but did not reject the Award. 
• Poona Pact reached, abandoning separate electorates for Depressed Classes. 

Gandhiji’s Harijan Campaign Themes: 

• Intensive campaign against untouchability and for social reforms. 
• Emphasis on root and branch removal of untouchability. 
• Opposition to mixing inter-dining and inter-marriage issues with untouchability. 

Gandhiji’s Approach to Sanatanists: 

• Tolerance and persuasion over compulsion. 
• Emphasis on penance and reparations by caste Hindus. 
• Warning that Hinduism would perish if untouchability persisted. 

Political Consequences: 

• Gandhiji stressed non-violent struggle against untouchability. 
• Believed removal of untouchability would bring all Indians together. 
• Harijan movement had political consequences despite being non-political. 

Legacy and Impact: 

• Harijan movement continued to carry the message of nationalism. 
• Gradual political awakening among Harijans. 
• Constructive work during non-mass movement phases kept Congress cadre engaged. 

24. The Rise of the Left – Wing 

Emergence of Left-Wing Groups: 

• In the late 1920s and 1930s, a powerful left-wing movement developed in India, contributing to the radicalization of the national movement for independence. 
• The Russian Revolution of 1917 had a significant impact on the Indian left-wing, inspiring socialist ideas and the belief that people, like in Russia, could unite to overthrow imperialist powers. 

Formation of Left-Wing Parties: 

• Two powerful left-wing parties emerged during this period: the Communist Party of India (CPI) and the Congress Socialist Party (CSP). 
• Influential leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose symbolized the socialist aspirations of the Indian youth. 

Influence of Russian Revolution: 

• The Bolshevik (Communist) party’s success in the Russian Revolution inspired socialist and communist ideologies in India. 
• The renunciation of imperialist rights by the Soviet regime in China and other parts of Asia further fueled anti-imperialist sentiments. 

Spread of Socialist Ideas: 

• Socialist and communist groups proliferated across India, with publications like “The Socialist” in Bombay and “Navayug” in Bengal. 
• Student and youth associations organized conferences advocating radical solutions to political, economic, and social issues. 

Role of Leaders like Nehru: 

• Jawaharlal Nehru played a key role in imparting a socialist vision to the national movement. 
• Nehru’s commitment to socialism grew during the 1930s, emphasizing the need for economic emancipation alongside political freedom. 

Relationship with Gandhiji: 

• Nehru had a complex relationship with Mahatma Gandhi. While critical of some Gandhian ideologies, Nehru acknowledged Gandhi’s revolutionary role in raising mass consciousness. 

Communist Movement Challenges: 

• The Communist movement faced challenges, including severe government repression, as seen in the Meerut Conspiracy Case. 
• A shift towards sectarian politics and a break with the Indian National Congress led to isolation from the mainstream national movement. 

Reorganization of Communist Party: 

• The Communist Party of India (CPI) was reorganized in 1935 under P.C. Joshi, aligning with the changing international stance of forming united fronts against fascism. 

Dutt-Bradley Thesis: 

• The Dutt-Bradley Thesis, formulated in 1936, emphasized the need for a united front against imperialism, with the National Congress playing a significant role.  

Influence of the Russian Revolution: 

• The Russian Revolution of 1917, led by the Bolshevik (Communist) party and V.I. Lenin, inspired leftist movements worldwide, including in India. 
• The establishment of the first socialist state in the Soviet Union had a profound impact on the colonial world, encouraging the belief that common people could unite to overthrow imperialist powers. 

Formation of Leftist Groups: 

• Socialist and communist groups emerged in India during the 1920s, with publications like “The Socialist” in Bombay and “Navayug” in Bengal disseminating socialist ideas. 
• Student and youth associations were organized, and conferences held, advocating radical solutions to political, economic, and social issues. 

Leadership of Nehru: 

• Jawaharlal Nehru played a pivotal role in imparting a socialist vision to the national movement. 
• Nehru’s interest in economic issues grew during his interaction with the peasant movement in eastern U.P. in 1920-21 and his exposure to international socialist movements. 

Formation of Communist and Socialist Parties: 

• The Communist Party of India (CPI) and the Congress Socialist Party (CSP) emerged as two powerful leftist parties. 

• The impact of the Great Depression in the 1930s further fueled the popularity of socialist ideas. 

Socialist Vision of Nehru: 

• Nehru advocated that political freedom should be accompanied by economic emancipation, emphasizing the need for a socialist society. 
• He expressed his commitment to socialism and the belief that it was the key to addressing poverty, unemployment, and social inequality. 

Challenges Faced by the Left: 

• The Communist movement faced repression from the government, particularly during the Meerut Conspiracy Case in 1929. 
• Internal divisions, ideological differences, and strategic disagreements within leftist groups posed challenges to their unity and effectiveness. 

Change in Communist Strategy: 

• The Communist Party underwent a shift in strategy in the mid-1930s, advocating collaboration with the Congress and accepting its role as a central political organization against imperialism. 

Formation of Congress Socialist Party (CSP): 

• The CSP was formed in 1934 by young Congress members disenchanted with Gandhian strategies, with leaders such as Jayaprakash Narayan and Acharya Narendra Dev. 

Objectives of CSP: 

• The CSP aimed to transform the Congress ideologically and organizationally, giving it a socialist direction while remaining committed to the national struggle. 

Weaknesses and Challenges: 

• The Left faced challenges in forging a united front due to doctrinal disputes, ideological differences, and personal conflicts among leaders. 
• Despite making significant contributions to worker and peasant movements and influencing the Congress ideologically, the Left failed to establish socialist hegemony over the national movement. 

Legacy and Impact: 

• The Left had a lasting impact on Indian politics, contributing to the ideological orientation of the Congress and influencing policies related to economic and social issues. 

25. The Strategic Debate 1934 – 1937  

Debate on Nationalist Strategy (1934-35): 

• Occurred after the withdrawal of the Civil Disobedience Movement. 
• Focus on the immediate future strategy during the non-mass struggle phase. 

Gandhian Approach: 

• Emphasized constructive work in villages, revival of village crafts. 
• Believed in consolidating people’s power for the next mass struggle. 

Swarajist Approach: 

• Advocated revival of constitutional methods and participation in elections. 
• Led by figures like Dr. M.A. Ansari, Asaf Ali, Satyamurthy, Bhulabhai Desai, and B.C. Roy. 
• Aimed at sustaining political interest and morale during a period of political apathy. 

Leftist Perspective: 

• Critical of both council-entry and suspension of civil disobedience. 
• Favored the continuation or resumption of non-constitutional mass movement. 
• Stressed the revolutionary potential due to economic crisis and mass readiness to fight. 

Nehru’s Leftist Alternative: 

• Represented a Marxist perspective. 
• Criticized withdrawal of Civil Disobedience as a ‘spiritual defeat.’ 
• Advocated understanding the class basis of society and incorporating class struggle into the anti-imperialist struggle. 
• Rejected Gandhian strategy of Struggle-Truce-Struggle (S-T-S’), proposed a permanent confrontation with imperialism (S-V or struggle for victory). 

Gandhi’s Conciliation: 

• Gandhi diffused tensions between various factions. 
• Permitted entry into legislatures for those advocating council-entry. 
• Emphasized the need for parliamentary work without compromising anti-imperialist goals. 

Government of India Act (1935): 

• Passed in August 1935 by the British Parliament. 
• Established All-India Federation with limited franchise. 
• Provided for provincial autonomy but retained special powers for British-appointed Governors. 
• Aimed at dividing the Congress internally and integrating segments into the colonial structure. 

British Long-Term Strategy (1935-1939): 

• Reforms intended to revive political standing of moderates. 
• Hoped to convince Congress of the efficacy of constitutionalism over mass politics. 
• Aimed to make Congressmen in office reluctant to return to sacrifice politics. 
• Maintained colonial control and influence in India. 

Political Paralysis and Strategies in the 1930s: 

Post-Civil Disobedience Movement Debate (1934-35): 

• Gandhiji emphasized constructive work in villages, reviving crafts to consolidate people’s power. 
• Another group advocated the revival of the constitutional method, participating in the 1934 elections to the Central Legislative Assembly. 

Three Tactical Perspectives: 

• Leftists criticized both council-entry and suspension of civil disobedience, favoring the continuation of the non-constitutional mass movement. 

• Jawaharlal Nehru presented a new leftist alternative to Gandhian anti-imperialist strategy, emphasizing class struggle and socialism. 

Gandhiji’s Views: 

• Gandhiji believed in constructive work and the consolidation of people’s power through non-violent means. 
• Accepted the need for parliamentary work but emphasized it should not compromise with imperialism. 
• Supported the Swarajist approach in elections but without compromising the core values of the Congress. 

Nehru’s Leftist Alternative: 

• Nehru criticized the withdrawal of the Civil Disobedience Movement and council-entry, considering it a ‘spiritual defeat.’ 
• Advocated the class basis of society, integration of workers and peasants, and the need for a socialist ideology within the Congress. 
• Opposed Gandhian strategy (S-T-S’) and called for a permanent confrontation and conflict with imperialism (S-V). 

Government of India Act 1935: 

• Passed in August 1935, providing for provincial autonomy and the establishment of an All-India Federation. 
• Limited franchise, retained control over defense and foreign affairs, and concentrated power in British hands. 
• British strategy aimed to co-opt and weaken the Congress by offering constitutional reforms. 

Internal Congress Debate (1936-37): 

• Debate on the acceptance of offices after the 1935 Act; divisions along Left (anti-acceptance) and Right (pro-acceptance) lines. 
• Leftists, led by Nehru, opposed office acceptance, considering it a surrender to imperialism. 
• Rightists argued for a combination of mass politics and work in legislatures to alter the political situation. 

Elections of 1937: 

• Congress decided to fight the elections, postponing the decision on office acceptance. 
• Massive response to the election campaign; Congress won a significant mandate in most provinces. 
• Nehru’s extensive election tour, covering 80,000 kilometers and addressing over ten million people. 

Conclusion: 

• Despite internal differences, the Congress remained united for the elections, avoiding a split for the sake of the anti-imperialist struggle. 
• Congress’s victory strengthened its position as the alternative to the colonial state. 
• Nehru’s enthusiasm and the election results buoyed the Congress’s anti-imperialist strategy. 

26. Twenty – eight Months of Congress Rule 

• Labor Legislation: Various provinces enacted labor laws to improve working conditions, regulate working hours, and ensure fair wages. These laws were aimed at protecting the rights of industrial workers. 
• Trade Union Recognition: The Congress Ministries recognized the role of trade unions and facilitated their recognition. This allowed workers to organize and collectively bargain for better working conditions. 
• Social Welfare Measures: The Ministries introduced social welfare measures for workers, including provisions for housing, healthcare, and education. These measures aimed to improve the overall well-being of the working class. 
• Minimum Wage Legislation: Steps were taken to establish minimum wage standards to ensure that workers received a fair and reasonable remuneration for their labor. 
• Labor Dispute Resolution: Mechanisms were set up for the resolution of labor disputes. These mechanisms aimed at maintaining industrial peace and addressing conflicts between labor and management through peaceful means. 

Congress Unity: 

• Despite factionalism, Congress maintained a common front before the Government of India. 
• The organization remained disciplined, and central leadership kept factionalism, especially at the top, in check. 

Disciplined Resignations: 

• Acceptance of office was just one phase in the freedom struggle. 
• During all-India political crises, Ministries promptly resigned when the central Congress leadership deemed it necessary. 
• This demonstrated Congress’s commitment to the emancipation of the Indian people, not just the pursuit of power. 

Avoidance of Split: 

• Congress avoided a split between its Left and Right wings, which the British actively tried to promote since 1934. 
• Despite strong critiques, the wings remained united and tended to come closer to each other, as seen during the Tripuri crisis. 

Influence Across Sections: 

• Congress gained influence across all sections of the Indian population. 
• The growth of Congress contributed to nationalist hegemony in Indian society. 

Myth Shattering: 

• Mass struggles destroyed the myth of British invincibility, showing that British power was not insurmountable. 
• Indians exercising power shattered the myth that Indians were not fit to rule, challenging the British narrative that had kept Indians in subjection. 

27. Peasant Movements in the 1930s and’ 40s  

Congress Discipline and Unity: 

• Despite factionalism, Congress maintained discipline and unity in its organization. 
• Central leadership controlled factionalism, ensuring a common front before the Government of India. 
• Ministries promptly resigned during political crises, emphasizing commitment to India’s freedom over holding office. 

Left-Right Unity: 

• Congress avoided a split between its Left and Right wings. 
• Despite critiques, the Left and Right tended to unite, as seen in the Tripuri crisis. 

Influence on the Masses: 

• Congress gained influence across all sections of society during the freedom struggle. 
• Growth of Congress contributed to nationalist hegemony in Indian society. 

Response to British Promotion of Factionalism: 

• British attempts to promote factionalism within Congress, especially since 1934, were resisted. 
• Congress maintained unity despite efforts to exploit internal divisions. 

Congress Ministries and Peasant Mobilization: 

• Congress Ministries (1937-1939) marked a new phase in peasant mobilization. 
• Agrarian legislation initiated by Congress Ministries spurred the mobilization of peasants. 
• Peasant conferences and meetings were organized at various levels to address demands and resolutions. 

Formation of All-India Kisan Sabha: 

• All-India Kisan Congress established in April 1936, later renamed All-India Kisan Sabha. 
• Leaders like Swami Sahajanand and N.G. Ranga played key roles. 
• Congress Socialist Party’s formation in 1934 contributed to the consolidation of Left forces. 

Impact of Civil Disobedience Movement: 

• Civil Disobedience Movement (1930) led to the emergence of a new generation of militant political cadres. 
• Young leaders influenced by Left ideologies emerged from the Civil Disobedience Movement. 

Peasant Struggles in Different Regions: 

• 1930s Depression and Congress Movement: 
  • Economic hardships due to the Great Depression fueled peasant awakening. 
  • Congress’ Civil Disobedience Movement (1930) contributed to mass struggles. 
• Peasant Movements in Bihar: 
  • Swami Sahajanand led the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha. 
  • Struggles for reduction of rent, restoration of bokasht lands, and against illegal levies. 
• Peasant Mobilization in Andhra: 
  • CSP activists contributed to the peasant movement in Andhra. 
  • Struggles against resettlement, forest laws, and tenant rights. 
• Kisan Struggles in Punjab: 
  • Punjab Kisan Committee (1937) played a crucial role. 
  • Struggles against land revenue resettlement and canal taxes. 
• Peasant Mobilization in Gujarat: 
  • Demands included the abolition of the hali system (bonded labor). 
  • Successful campaign for reform in Gujarat. 
• Peasant Movements in Kerala: 
  • Powerful movement in Malabar led by CSP activists. 
  • Demands included the abolition of feudal levies and renewal fees. 
• Peasant Mobilization in Bengal: 
  • Struggles in Burdwan against canal tax. 
  • Kisans marched to Calcutta in 1938, demanding their rights. 

Impact of World War II: 

• • World War II disrupted the peasant movement. 
  • Severe repression against left-wing leaders due to anti-War stance. 
  • CPI’s People’s War line led to dissensions within the kisan sabha. 

Post-War Peasant Mobilization: 

• • Peasant movements revived post-World War II. 
  • Increased assertion of rights, particularly the demand for zamindari abolition. 

Tebhaga Movement in Bengal: 

• • Tebhaga movement (1946) led by Bengal Provincial Kisan Sabha. 
  • Share-croppers demanded increased share and storage rights. 
  • Movement faced repression but contributed to later legislative changes. 

National Movement and Peasant Unity: 

• Peasant movements remained closely linked to the national movement. 
• Initial national struggles provided a foundation for subsequent peasant uprisings. 
• Ideology of nationalism was integral to the kisan movement. 

Balancing Nationalism and Peasant Demands: 

• While the kisan movement had its own class-based demands, it balanced them with nationalist goals. 
• Attempts to diverge too far from the national movement risked losing mass support. 

Role of Kisan Movement in Agrarian Reforms: 

• Peasant movements, despite immediate successes, contributed to the climate for post-Independence agrarian reforms. 
• Demand popularization by kisan sabha influenced later achievements like zamindari abolition. 

Transformation of Peasants’ Consciousness: 

• Peasant movements aimed at transforming peasants’ consciousness about their rights. 
• Struggles focused on alleviating oppressive aspects of the existing agrarian structure. 

Similarity in Forms of Struggle: 

• Forms of struggle adopted by peasant movements were similar across diverse regions. 
• Mobilization through meetings, rallies, civil disobedience, and non-payment of rent and taxes. 

Legacy of Peasant Movements: 

• Peasant movements left a lasting legacy, paving the way for post-Independence agrarian reforms. 
• Contributions included corroding the power of landed classes and preparing the ground for structural transformation. 

28. The Freedom Struggle in Princely India  

Background of Indian Princely States: 

• Varied patterns of British conquest in India led to two-fifths of the sub-continent being ruled by Indian princes. 
• Princely States like Hyderabad, Mysore, and Kashmir were significant, with diverse sizes and populations. 

Princely States’ Autocracy and British Paramountcy: 

• Princes had unrestrained power, heavy land taxes, and limited civil liberties. 
• British guaranteed Princes’ autocratic power in return for recognizing British paramountcy. 
• British residents often interfered in princely States’ affairs. 

British Role in Princely States’ Condition: 

• British policies influenced the economic, social, and political backwardness of many princely States. 
• National movement’s growth led Princes to become ‘bulwarks of reaction’ against nationalism. 

Impact of National Movement on Princely States: 

• Revolutionary Nationalists from British India politicized princely States in the early 20th century. 
• Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Movement in 1920 further influenced political consciousness. 

Congress Policy towards Princely States: 

• Congress resolution in 1920 called on Princes to grant responsible government. 
• Congress allowed residents of States to join but restricted political activity in the States under Congress’s name. 

1930s: Shift in Congress Policy and Princely States Awakening: 

• Government of India Act 1935 proposed federation, but Princes’ nominees were to represent States. 
• Congress demanded elected representatives for States, not Princes’ nominees. 
• Congress Ministries in British India (1937) increased political confidence in princely States. 

1938-39: New Awakening in Princely States: 

• Political movements for responsible government intensified in States like Jaipur, Hyderabad, Mysore, etc. 
• Congress policy evolved to support movements more actively, reflecting the changing spirit among people. 

World War II and Quit India Movement (1942): 

• Congress, during Quit India Movement, extended the call for struggle to princely States. 
• Princely States formally joined the struggle for Indian independence. 

Post-War Period and Integration of Princely States: 

• The lapse of British paramountcy after the war led to negotiations for the integration of princely States. 
• Sardar Patel played a crucial role in diplomatically integrating most States into the Indian Union. 

Case Studies: Rajkot and Hyderabad: 

• Rajkot experienced Satyagraha and negotiations, with Sardar Patel’s involvement leading to concessions. 
• Hyderabad resisted integration, making a serious bid for independence, necessitating the use of armed forces. 

Gandhi’s Personal Intervention: 

• Gandhi’s personal interventions in Rajkot and other princely States had significant impacts on negotiations and movements. 
• His emphasis on non-violent resistance played a crucial role in shaping the course of events.  

Rajkot Satyagraha: 

• Sardar Patel, referred to as the Sardar, was involved in a political struggle in Rajkot against the Thakore, Virewala, who held the real power. 
• The Thakore reneged on an agreement, leading to a fast by Mahatma Gandhi, which triggered a nationwide protest. 
• Despite legal interventions, the Thakore refused to honor the agreement, and hostile demonstrations ensued. 
• Gandhi, realizing his approach was ineffective, released the Thakore from the agreement, apologizing for coercion. 

Analysis of Rajkot Satyagraha: 

• The situation highlighted the paradoxical nature of resistance in princely states, where rulers were protected by the British government against reform movements. 
• Legal separation between the British government and princely states provided a convenient excuse for resistance. 
• The Congress had long argued that movements in princely and British India couldn’t be merged due to these unique challenges. 

Impact of Rajkot Satyagraha: 

• Despite apparent failure, the movement had a significant impact on politicizing people, especially in Western India. 
• It demonstrated to the princes that their survival relied on British support. 
• The struggle facilitated the integration of states during independence, with Sardar Patel playing a crucial role. 

Hyderabad: 

• Hyderabad, the largest princely state, was marked by linguistic, cultural, and religious suppression under Nizam Osman Ali Khan. 

• Political consciousness grew through movements like Non-Cooperation and Khilafat in the 1920s. 
• The Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-32) further fueled political activism. 
• The Andhra Mahasabha and other regional organizations played key roles in promoting language and cultural awareness. 

Quit India Movement in Hyderabad: 

• In 1942, the Quit India Movement, unifying British and princely states, gained momentum in Hyderabad. 
• The movement faced opposition from Communists who supported the British anti-Fascist war efforts. 
• The movement also saw a split between Communist and non-Communist radical nationalists. 

Post-War Resistance in Hyderabad: 

• The years 1945-46 witnessed a powerful peasant struggle in Telangana against oppressive practices. 
• The repression increased, and the Communist Party played a crucial role in organizing the defense against the Razakars. 
• The struggle continued, leading to the integration of Hyderabad into the Indian Union in 1948. 

Conclusion: 

• The unique political conditions in princely states necessitated diverse strategies, with violent methods becoming more prevalent. 
• The difference in political contexts between princely states and British India explains the Congress’s hesitation to merge movements in the two regions. 
• The example of Hyderabad exemplifies how the Communists gained influence in states with a more favorable environment for violent resistance.  

29. Indian Capitalists and the National Movement 

Participation of Capitalists in the National Movement: 

• Some individual capitalists actively participated in the national movement, going to jail and facing hardships alongside Congress leaders. 
• Notable names include Jamnalal Bajaj, Vadilal Lallubhai Mehta, Samuel Aaron, Lala Shankar Lal, G.D. Birla, Ambalal Sarabhai, and Walchand Hirachand. 

Overall Strategy of the Indian Capitalist Class: 

• The economic development of the Indian capitalist class during the colonial period was substantial and unique compared to other colonial countries. 
• The growth was achieved independently, and the capitalist class was not subservient to foreign capital or pro-imperialist feudal interests. 
• The class, by the mid-1920s, perceived its long-term interest and took an openly anti-imperialist position. 

Formation of FICCI (Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry): 

• Efforts were made since the early 1920s to establish a national organization representing Indian commercial, industrial, and financial interests. 
• The formation of FICCI in 1927 marked a significant development, recognized by both the British government and the Indian public as representing the dominant opinion of the Indian capitalist class. 

Capitalist Class’s Involvement in Politics: 

• The capitalist class recognized the need to intervene in politics and saw FICCI as the national guardians of trade, commerce, and industry. 
• The capitalist class preferred constitutional forms of struggle over mass civil disobedience, fearing revolutionary social changes that could threaten capitalism. 

Attitude towards Mass Civil Disobedience: 

• The capitalists were wary of prolonged mass civil disobedience due to its potential to turn revolutionary. 
• While they supported civil disobedience to extract concessions, they also sought a balance to avoid threats to private property and the continuity of day-to-day business. 

Relationship with the Congress and National Movement: 

• The capitalist class did not determine the course of the national movement; it reacted to the autonomous movement. 
• The Indian capitalists supported the Congress but did not see it as their class party. They engaged with the Congress conservatively. 

Opposition to Radicalization: 

• The capitalists were wary of the growing radicalization within the Congress, especially in the Left direction. 
• Their strategy involved containing the Left without aligning with imperialism. 

Economic Reforms and Social Welfare: 

• The capitalists realized the need for economic reforms to prevent social upheavals and proposed a comprehensive plan for post-war economic development. 
• The Bombay Plan, drafted by capitalists in 1942, incorporated socialist demands to a certain extent. 

Conclusion: 

• The Indian capitalist class, though anti-socialist and bourgeois, was not pro-imperialist. 
• The class identified its long-term interests, understood the Congress and its relationship with different classes, and projected its interests as societal interests. 

30. The Development of a Nationalist Foreign Policy  

• Opposition to Imperialism: Indian nationalists opposed British imperialism, particularly its interference in other countries’ internal affairs and the use of Indian resources and military for British imperialist schemes in Africa and Asia. 
• Financial Burden and Moral Grounds: Indian leaders condemned wars and expeditions, arguing against the financial burden on the Indian people. They also opposed these actions on moral and political grounds, asserting that such conflicts did not align with Indian interests but served British imperialist expansion. 
• Anti-Imperialist Solidarity: Indian nationalists expressed solidarity with anti-imperialist movements worldwide, supporting the struggles of various nations such as Ireland, Russia, Turkey, Burma, Afghanistan, Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia, and others. 
• Peaceful Policy Advocacy: Indian leaders advocated for a policy of peace, asserting that India’s true interests lay in internal development and reforms rather than participating in wars and military expeditions. 
• Asia-Consciousness: The text notes the emergence of an Asian identity during the opposition to the Burma war in 1885. Indian nationalists criticized imperialist efforts to partition China and expressed solidarity with fellow Asian countries. 
• World War I Support: During World War I, Indian nationalist leaders, including Lokamanya Tilak, initially supported the war effort with the hope that India’s loyalty would be repaid with economic and political concessions for self-government. 
• Post-War Development: After World War I, Indian nationalists expanded their foreign policy to oppose political and economic imperialism and advocate for world peace. The Congress demanded India’s representation at the Peace Conference and expressed solidarity with freedom fighters globally. 
• League Against Imperialism: In 1927, Jawaharlal Nehru participated in the International Congress against Colonial Oppression and Imperialism in Brussels, leading to the formation of the League Against Imperialism. The Congress affiliated with the League and declared its support for national liberation struggles worldwide. 
• Anti-Fascist Stance: As fascism spread in Europe, Indian nationalists, including Jawaharlal Nehru and Mahatma Gandhi, condemned fascist aggression. They expressed support for Ethiopia, Spain, China, and Czechoslovakia in their struggles against fascist powers. 
• Soviet Union Admiration: Indian leaders, especially Nehru, expressed admiration and goodwill for the Soviet Union during the 1930s, seeing it as an anti-imperialist force despite reservations about Stalinist purges. 
• Opposition to Imperialist War: The Congress declared its opposition to an imperialist war and refused to support British imperialism. It insisted that India’s involvement in any war should be contingent on the immediate recognition of its independence. 

30. The Rise and Growth of Communalism  

• Communalism in modern India is an ideology characterized by three stages: belief in common secular interests among followers of the same religion, the notion of religion-based communities as fundamental units, and the belief that the interests of different religious communities are mutually incompatible and hostile. 
• Communal ideology forms the basis of communal politics, and communal violence is a consequence of this ideology. 
• Liberal communalism, a stage where communalists uphold certain liberal, democratic, and nationalist values, often precedes extreme communalism, which involves fear, hatred, and the use of violence. 
• Communalism emerged as a modern phenomenon in response to the transformation of Indian society under colonialism, the struggle against it, and the need for new ways of understanding common interests. 
• Communalism was not inherent but a result of specific socio-economic and political conditions. It is not exclusive to India and has parallels in other societies, such as Fascism, anti-Semitism, and religious conflicts. 
• The communal consciousness arose due to economic stagnation, competition for limited opportunities, and the inability of colonialism to develop the Indian economy. 
• The middle classes played a significant role in communalism, as they sought short-term solutions to economic challenges, including government jobs, through communal politics. 
• Communalism was also fueled by the limited economic opportunities in the absence of industrial development, leading to intense competition for government jobs. 
• Communal politics often centered around reservations in government jobs, educational institutions, and political positions, as these were the main avenues of employment for the middle classes. 
• The colonial character of the Indian economy and the resulting economic stagnation provided a fertile ground for the growth of communalism. 
• Communalism distorted social tensions and class conflicts by framing them as communal conflicts, diverting attention from the real causes of exploitation and oppression. 
• The communal question was primarily a middle-class question, and while many intellectuals remained secular and left-wing, a significant portion of the middle class succumbed to communal politics. 

Intersection of Religious and Social Class Distinctions: 

• In several parts of India, religious distinctions coincided with social and class distinctions. The exploiting sections (landlords, merchants, and moneylenders) were often upper-caste Hindus, while the poor and exploited were Muslims or lower-caste Hindus. 

Manipulation of Communal Narratives: 

• Communalists propagated narratives that portrayed Hindus as exploiting Muslims or vice versa. The struggle between different social classes was framed as a religious conflict, distorting the true nature of economic and class-based struggles. 

Communalism as a Tool for Power Struggles: 

• Communalism is portrayed as a struggle between different upper classes or strata for power, privileges, and economic gains. Communal leaders and parties aligned with economically and politically reactionary social classes, merchants, moneylenders, and the colonial state. 

British Role in Encouraging Communalism: 

• British colonial rule is implicated in the growth of communalism. The policy of “Divide and Rule” is highlighted as a key factor. The colonial state treated Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs as separate communities, extending official favor and patronage to communalists. 

Role of Hindu Nationalism in Communalism: 

• The passage suggests a Hindu tinge in nationalist thought and propaganda, particularly in the early 20th century. Some nationalist leaders emphasized ancient Indian culture with a Hindu ideological underpinning, making it challenging to win over Muslims to the national movement. 

Distorted View of History: 

• A communal and distorted view of Indian history, especially the ancient and medieval periods, played a major role in the rise of communal consciousness. The teaching of history from a communal perspective contributed to the communal ideologies of both Hindus and Muslims. 

Religious Pluralism and Communalism: 

• The passage argues against the idea that religious pluralism is an inherent cause of communalism. Instead, it emphasizes that religion itself is not the cause of communalism; rather, communalists use religious differences to mask underlying social needs and conflicts. 

Religiosity and Communalism: 

• While religion is not the cause of communalism, religiosity (intense emotional commitment to religious matters) is seen as a contributory factor. Communalism becomes a popular movement when it adopts the cry of “religion in danger,” appealing to religious sentiments. 

32. Communalism – The Liberal Phase  

• Communal harmony prevailed in India until the late 19th century, as evidenced by Hindus and Muslims fighting together in the 1857 Revolt and a lack of Hindu-Muslim distinctions in the 1860s press. 
• Muslim intellectuals like Syed Ahmed Khan initially focused on addressing the educational and socio-economic disparities faced by Muslims, blaming the government’s policies and neglect of modern education among upper-class Muslims, not Hindus. 
• Syed Ahmed Khan founded the Aligarh College to promote modern education among Muslims, receiving support from both Hindus and Muslims. He emphasized the commonness of Hindus and Muslims until the founding of the Congress in 1885. 
• Communalism in India had its roots in the 1880s when Syed Ahmed Khan, in response to the anti-imperialist stance of the National Congress, aligned with the colonial rulers and opposed the Congress, promoting the loyalty of Muslims to the British. 
• Syed Ahmed Khan and followers laid down the foundation of communal ideology, arguing that Hindus, as a majority, would dominate Muslims in a representative, democratic government, necessitating British rule to safeguard Muslim interests. 
• The All India Muslim League was founded in 1907 as a loyalist and communal political organization, supporting the partition of Bengal, advocating separate Muslim interests, and demanding separate electorates and safeguards for Muslims. 
• Hindu communalism emerged in the 1870s, with some zamindars, moneylenders, and professionals promoting anti-Muslim sentiments. They accepted the colonial view of Indian history, emphasizing the ‘tyrannical’ Muslim rule and the ‘liberating’ role of the British. 
• Anti-cow slaughter propaganda in the 1890s and campaigns against Urdu in favor of Hindi in U.P. and Bihar further fueled Hindu-Muslim tensions, often resulting in communal riots. 
• The Punjab Hindu Sabha, founded in 1909, expressed anger against the National Congress for uniting Indians into a single nation and accused it of sacrificing Hindu interests to appease Muslims. 
• The weak position of the middle class among Muslims and the dominance of reactionary landlords and mullahs contributed to the growth of Muslim communalism. 
• The colonial authorities, relying on Muslim communalism, introduced separate electorates in the Morley-Minto Reforms of 1907, turning elections and legislative councils into arenas for communal conflicts. 
• The younger generation of Muslim intellectuals grew dissatisfied with the loyalist approach, and some joined the Congress, leading to constitutional concessions from the British government. 
• Communal tensions escalated, culminating in the tragic partition of British India in 1947, dividing the country into India and Pakistan based on religious lines. 

Transition in Muslim League Leadership: 

• Young nationalists within the Muslim League challenged the upper-class leadership’s slavish mentality and embraced modern, radical nationalist ideas. 
• Ahrar movement, led by figures like Maulana Mohammed Ali and Hakim Ajmal Khan, gained prominence. 
• Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, educated at Al Azhar University, propagated rationalist and nationalist ideas through his newspaper Al Hilal. 

Nationalists in Muslim League (1912-1924): 

• Nationalist Muslims within the League overshadowed loyalists, moving closer to Congress policies. 
• M.A. Jinnah joined the League in 1912, adopting self-government as an objective. 
• The Lucknow Pact of 1916 marked political unity between Congress and Muslim League, with common demands for self-government. 

Flaws in Nationalism: 

• Nationalists’ approach had a religious and pan-Islamic tinge, often using religious sentiments in their anti-imperialist stance. 
• Their failure to oppose imperialism based on economic and political consequences led to a harmful habit of viewing political issues from a religious perspective. 

Post-World War I Developments: 

• Hindu-Muslim unity strengthened during the Rowlatt Acts, Khilafat, and Non-Cooperation Movements. 
• Swami Shradhanand and Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlu symbolized unity by addressing each other’s religious congregations. 
• Communal sentiments weakened the Muslim League, with leaders struggling to keep pace with mass movements. 

Communalism Resurgence (Post-1922): 

• Communal riots erupted, and old communal organizations revived. 
• Muslim League cleansed of radical elements; upper-class leaders with communal ideology regained prominence. 
• Hindu Mahasabha revived in 1923, openly catering to anti-Muslim sentiments. 

Psychology of Fear: 

• Communalists instigated fear among Hindus and Muslims of being dominated, suppressed, and threatened. 
• Sangathan and Shuddhi movements among Hindus, Tanzeem and Tabligh movements among Muslims aimed at communal consolidation and religious conversion. 

Weaknesses in Nationalist Response (1920s): 

• Nationalist leaders adopted a strategy of negotiating with communal leaders, legitimizing their politics. 
• Negotiations weakened the position of secular, anti-imperialist Muslims. 
• Failure to oppose communalism in all arenas and lack of deep analysis allowed communal ideology to persist. 

Round Table Conferences (Early 1930s): 

• Communalists joined hands with reactionary sections of British rulers during Round Table Conferences. 
• Aga Khan, Mohammed Iqbal, and others emphasized the impracticability of merging Hindu and Muslim interests. 

Communal Parties’ Weakness (Till 1937): 

• Communal parties remained weak and narrow-based until 1937. 
• Most Muslim and Hindu intellectuals, workers, and peasants joined mainstream nationalism and socialism. 
• Communal Award of 1932 accepted Muslim demands, changing the dynamics for communal forces. 

Communal Forces in Transition (Post-Communal Award): 

• With the Communal Award, communal forces faced a new situation, and their future direction became uncertain. 

33. Jinnah, Golwalkar and Extreme Communalism  

• Communalism in India evolved from a liberal stage to an extremist or fascist form by 1937. 
• Liberal communalists believed in distinct religion-based communities with separate interests but aimed for eventual national unity. 
• Extreme communalism, post-1937, involved hatred, fear, and irrationality, with a focus on domination and suppression. 
• Communalism gained a popular base and became a mass movement, particularly among the urban lower middle classes. 
• The shift from liberal to extremist communalism was influenced by the decline of other political forces and the radicalization of the national movement. 
• Communalism served the class interests of landlords and vested elites, who switched to communalism as a defense mechanism. 
• Colonial authorities actively promoted communalism as a tool for “divide and rule” when other divisive tactics lost effectiveness. 
• The outbreak of World War II further strengthened reliance on communalism to counter nationalist demands. 
• Both Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha initially ran on liberal communal lines but shifted to mass-based politics influenced by fascist models. 
• The life history of Mohammed Ali Jinnah illustrates the progression from a secular nationalist to a liberal communalist and finally an advocate for Pakistan. 
• Jinnah’s trajectory showcases how communalism, once accepted, tends to develop further, often against the individual’s initial intentions. 
• The outbreak of mass movements and radicalization of the national movement in the 1930s pushed conservatives towards extreme communalism. 
• The failure of liberal politics and the need for a new basis led to the adoption of extreme communalism, especially among Hindu and Muslim communalists. 
• Jinnah’s return to India in 1936 initially emphasized liberal communalism, but poor election results led him to adopt extreme communal politics. 
• Jinnah’s shift to extreme communalism involved using themes of hate and fear, claiming Congress aimed for Hindu dominance and the destruction of Islam. 
• Examples of Jinnah’s statements include accusing Congress of wanting a Hindu raj, predicting the annihilation of Islam in a united India, and portraying the Congress as a fascist force. 
• Jinnah’s entry into politics marked a low level, with communal propagandists engaging in Goebbelsian demagogy. 
• League leaders like Suleri, Durrani, and Gazdar promoted anti-Hindu sentiments, even suggesting eradication of Hindus like Jews in Germany. 
• Muslim communalists targeted nationalist Muslims, branding them as traitors aligned with Congress. 
• Religion became central to propaganda, with the promise of Pakistan being ruled under Sharia and the portrayal of the Congress-League conflict as Islam vs. Kufr. 
• Hindu communalism, led by leaders like Savarkar and Golwalkar, shifted towards extremism and fascist ideology. 
• Golwalkar advocated for non-Hindus in India to adopt Hindu culture, language, and religion, or be subordinated to the Hindu nation. 
• The RSS intensified attacks on Congress leaders in 1946-47, accusing them of promoting Hindu-Muslim unity to the detriment of Hindus. 
• Communal propaganda fueled the Calcutta killings (1946) and later events, leading to widespread violence and the assassination of Gandhiji. 
• Jinnah’s post-partition hope for a liberal, secular Pakistan was undermined by the communal monster he had unleashed. 
• Despite India’s partition, nationalist India successfully framed a secular constitution and built a primarily secular polity. 
• Controversies around the communal problem include debates on Jinnah’s conciliation and the formation of a coalition government in 1937. 
• The argument that appeasing Jinnah could have prevented separatism overlooks his existing commitment to liberal communalism. 
• Jinnah’s refusal to provide negotiable demands and insistence on a Hindu-centric Congress hindered any meaningful negotiation. 
• The failure to confront communalism as an ideology weakened the Congress and the national movement. 
• The Congress relied too heavily on negotiations with communal leaders, lacking a long-term strategy to combat communalism ideologically and culturally.  

34. The Crisis at Tripuri to the Cripps Mission  

Congress Crisis in 1939: 

• Congress victory in the 1937 election shifted the balance of power against colonial authorities. 
• Left-wing parties’ growth led to increased militancy within the nationalist ranks. 
• Subhas Bose’s unanimous election as Congress President in 1938 led to a crisis. 
• In 1939, Bose stood again, advocating militant politics and radical ideas. 
• The Congress Working Committee, led by Patel, opposed Bose’s candidacy, leading to a divisive election. 
• Bose won but faced a crisis at the Tripuri session due to his propaganda against Patel and the majority of Congress leadership. 
• Differences in policy and tactics emerged between Bose and Gandhiji, leading to Bose’s resignation. 
• Rajendra Prasad replaced Bose, and the Forward Bloc was formed as a new party within the Congress. 

World War II and Congress’s Response: 

• World War II began on September 1, 1939, with Germany’s invasion of Poland. 
• The Congress sympathized with the victims of fascist aggression but questioned India’s role in a war for freedom while still under British rule. 
• Sharp differences within the Congress emerged on whether to support the Allies or not. 
• Jawaharlal Nehru distinguished between democracy and fascism but argued that India should neither join the war nor immediately start a struggle. 
• The Congress Working Committee, influenced by Nehru’s position, adopted a resolution condemning Nazi aggression but asserting that India couldn’t participate in a war for democratic freedom denied to her. 
• The British Government’s response was negative, refusing to define war aims beyond resisting aggression. 
• The Viceroy offered a consultative committee, and the Secretary of State expressed reluctance to discuss a post-British rule in India. 
• The British Government showed no intention of loosening its hold on India during or after the war 

Congress’s Reaction to British Policies: 

• Gandhiji criticized the British Government’s policies, seeing them as a continuation of the old divide-and-rule strategy. 
• The Congress rejected the Viceroy’s statement, refused to support the war effort, and called for the resignation of Congress ministries in protest. 
• Differences within the Congress arose regarding the immediate initiation of a mass satyagraha. 

Reasons for Delay in Mass Satyagraha: 

• Support for Allies: The dominant leadership believed in not embarrassing the Allies (Britain and France) in their war effort, considering their cause just. 
• Hindu-Muslim Unity: The lack of unity between Hindus and Muslims was seen as a barrier to a successful struggle. 
• Lack of Mass Readiness: The leadership felt that the masses were not ready for an immediate struggle, and the Congress organization needed strengthening. 

Left-Wing Perspective: 

• Left-wing groups, including Subhas Bose, Congress Socialist Party, and Communists, characterized the war as imperialistic and called for an immediate, all-out struggle. 
• They criticized the Congress leadership’s “wait and see” policy, accusing them of compromising with imperialism for petty concessions. 
• Internal divisions among the Left on whether to split the Congress or pressurize its leadership. 

Jawaharlal Nehru’s Ambivalence: 

• Nehru’s stance was ambivalent, recognizing the imperialistic nature of the Allied countries but also opposing actions that might aid Hitler and the Nazis. 
• Ultimately, Nehru aligned with Gandhiji and the majority of Congress leadership. 

Individual Satyagraha: 

• Gandhiji initiated Individual Satyagraha, where selected individuals offered civil disobedience on a limited basis, focusing on freedom of speech against war participation. 
• The campaign aimed to express Indian political sentiments and provide an opportunity for the British government to accept Indian demands peacefully. 

Changes in British Politics (1941): 

• Nazi Germany’s occupation and Japan’s attacks in Eastern Asia brought the war closer to India’s doorstep. 
• Congress leaders expressed concern for the safety of India and support for the Allies, offering cooperation in defense if full independence was granted after the war. 

Cripps Mission: 

• Stafford Cripps led a mission to India in March 1942 with proposals for Dominion Status and a constitution-making body after the war. 
• The Congress rejected the proposals due to insufficient independence, representation of princely states, and partition provisions. 
• Negotiations failed due to Cripps’ limitations in bargaining and opposition from key British officials. 

Conclusion: 

• Frustrated by the failure of negotiations and the intolerable situation, Indians felt the need for a final assault on imperialism. The time seemed ripe for a mass struggle. 

35. The Quit India Movement and the INA  

Quit India Movement (August Revolution): 

• Launched with the slogan “Quit India, Bharat Choro.” 
• Response to the failure of the Cripps Mission in April 1942, indicating Britain’s unwillingness to offer an honorable settlement. 
• Common people displayed heroism and militancy in the face of brutal repression. 
• Circumstances were adverse, with the government using draconian measures, justifying actions in the context of the war effort. 

Reasons for the Movement: 

• Popular discontent due to rising prices and war-time shortages. 
• Government actions, like commandeering boats, led to anger. 
• Growing feeling of an imminent British collapse, especially with news of Allied reverses. 
• Fear of British betrayal based on experiences in Malaya and Burma. 

Gandhiji’s Evolving Position: 

• Initially reluctant to disrupt the anti-fascist War effort. 
• Convinced of the inevitability of a struggle after the failure of the Cripps Mission. 
• Drafted a resolution for Congress, leaning towards Quit India. 

August 1942: Congress Decision and Gandhiji’s Speech: 

• Working Committee accepted the idea of a struggle in July 1942. 
• Historic meeting at Gowalia Tank, Bombay, in August. 
• Gandhiji’s speech emphasized “Do or Die” and rejection of anything short of complete freedom. 

Government Response and Mass Uprising: 

• Government arrests of top leaders on August 9, 1942. 
• Mass upsurge with protests, attacks on symbols of authority, and disruptions. 
• Disruption of communications, attacks on police stations, post offices, and railway stations. 
• Popular resistance in Bihar and Eastern U.P. reached the level of a rebellion. 

Repression and Underground Movement: 

• Severe repression, arrests, and use of military force. 
• Underground networks emerged with leaders like Achyut Patwardhan, Aruna Asaf Ali, and Ram Manohar Lohia. 
• Disruption of communications, attacks on government officials, and dissemination of news were key activities. 

Gandhiji’s Fast and Public Response: 

• Gandhiji’s fast in February 1943 in protest against state violence. 
• Public response with hartals, demonstrations, and strikes across the country. 
• Resignation of three Indian members of the Viceroy’s Executive Council in support of Gandhiji. 

Government Intransigence: 

• Despite widespread appeals, including international pressure, the government remained unmoved. 
• Viceroy dismissed concerns about Gandhiji’s death and anticipated benefits for British interests. 
• Gandhiji’s fast successfully raised public morale and intensified anti-British sentiments. 

Quit India Movement (1942): 

• Symbolic Gesture: Sparked widespread resistance and exposed the government’s high-handedness. 

Parallel Governments: 

• Ballia, East UP: Chittu Pande led a parallel government, but it was short-lived. 
• Tamluk, Bengal: Jatiya Sarkar (Dec 1942 – Sep 1944) focused on cyclone relief, education, and armed Vidyut Vahini. 
• Satara, Maharashtra: Long-lasting parallel government formed in phases, involved marches, sabotage, and Robin Hood-style activities. Prati Sarkar continued till 1945. 

Participation: 

• Youth Involvement: Youth, especially students, played a significant role. 
• Women’s Contribution: Women, including leaders like Aruna Asaf Ali and Sucheta Kripalani, played vital roles. 
• Worker Sacrifices: Workers endured long strikes and faced police repression. 
• Peasant Uprising: Peasants, both rich and poor, concentrated on attacking British symbols without engaging in anti-zamindar violence. 

Government Officials’ Role: 

• Lower-level officials assisted the movement by providing shelter, information, and monetary help. 
• Jail officials showed kindness to prisoners, expressing sympathy openly. 

• Muslim Participation: While Muslim mass participation was not high, there was no hostility; Muslim League supporters provided shelter and did not act as informers. 
• Communist Involvement: Despite the official Communist Party position, hundreds of Communists at local levels participated, drawn by anti-fascist sentiments. 
• Debate on Spontaneity and Violence: 

• Spontaneity in 1942 larger than earlier movements, with broad program outlined by Congress leadership. 
• Congress had been preparing ideologically and organizationally since 1937. 
• Violence debated; some felt justified due to circumstances, others conflicted with non-violence principles. 

Outcome and Aftermath: 

• Placed demand for independence on the immediate agenda. 
• Post-Gandhi’s release in 1944, constructive work emphasized; Congress reorganization viewed with suspicion by the government. 

Indian National Army (INA): 

• Origin: Conceived by Mohan Singh in Malaya; INA formed in two phases. 
• Role in Quit India Movement: Gained momentum during Quit India; INA divisions formed. 
• Leadership Change: Subhas Chandra Bose took charge in the second phase, setting up Provisional Government of Free India. 
• Demoralization: Discrimination by the Japanese, failure of the Imphal campaign, and retreat led to demoralization. 
• Post-War Movement: INA men faced punishment, sparking a powerful movement in their defense. 

36. Post – War National Upsurge  

• The end of World War II marked a significant shift in Indian politics, leading to a wave of popular initiatives challenging British rule. 
• Notable movements during this period included the country-wide strike wave, Tebhaga Movement, Warlis Revolt, Punjab kisan morchas, Travancore people’s struggle, and Telengana Movement, all with an anti-imperialist focus. 
• The Quit India Movement, despite being suppressed in eight weeks, left a lasting impact, and the release of Congress leaders in mid-1945 revealed a politically charged and anti-British populace. 
• The Labour Party in Britain, eager to settle the Indian issue, lifted the ban on Congress, leading to elections where the Congress won over 90% of general seats. 
• The INA (Indian National Army) trials and the demand for clemency for INA prisoners became a central issue, mobilizing diverse social groups and political parties. 
• The INA campaign saw widespread support, with contributions from various segments like students, municipal committees, Gurdwara committees, and even English intellectuals. 
• The agitation had a profound impact on traditional pillars of British rule, with sections of government employees, loyalists, and even armed forces expressing sympathy for the INA cause. 
• Three notable upsurges occurred in Calcutta and Bombay, with students challenging authority and the Royal Indian Navy (RIN) going on strike in protest against racial discrimination. 
• The INA campaign and subsequent uprisings reflected a growing nationalist sentiment and set the stage for further anti-British movements in the lead-up to India’s independence. 
• Post-War Relief and Political Initiatives: The end of World War II brought relief to India, but it also marked the beginning of various political movements challenging British rule. Despite challenges like famine, inflation, and scarcity, there was a renewed political energy and anti-British sentiment. 
• Quit India Movement and Release of Leaders: The Quit India Movement faced repression but left a lasting impact. After leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Maulana Azad were released from jail, they were greeted by enthusiastic crowds, indicating a resurgence of political fervor. 
• Political Developments after the War: The Labour Party in Britain, which came to power after the war, was eager to settle the Indian issue. The ban on the Congress was lifted, and elections were declared. The Congress and the Muslim League had significant victories in the elections. 
• INA Trials and RIN Revolt: The text delves into the significance of the INA trials and the subsequent demand for leniency towards INA prisoners. The RIN revolt in 1946, led by naval ratings, is highlighted, describing the impact it had on popular consciousness. 
• Communal Unity and Uprisings: The narrative discusses the communal unity observed during these events, with various political parties and groups supporting the causes like the INA trials and RIN revolt. However, it also notes the limitations of these upsurges, particularly in sustaining broad-based support and affecting change. 
• Response from Authorities: The authorities responded to the upsurges with repression, including the use of force and arrests. The text suggests that despite the challenges posed by these movements, the British colonial administration maintained its control. 
• Gandhiji’s Perspective: Mahatma Gandhi’s perspective is mentioned, emphasizing the importance of non-violence and the need for the nation to trust British declarations of intentions to grant self-rule. 
• Congress Role: The text touches on the perceived role of the Congress party during these events, including its approach to negotiations and its stance on the uprisings. It suggests that negotiations were an integral part of Congress strategy. 

37. Freedom and Partition  

• Success of the Nationalist Movement: The narrative suggests that the success of the nationalist movement in India was evident by the end of World War II. The mass actions of 1946-47, in which many Communists participated, are highlighted as contributing to the struggle for independence. 
• Erosion of British Authority: The author argues that the British rule in India was maintained, in part, by the consent or acquiescence of certain sections of the Indian population, such as zamindars and upper classes. The erosion of British authority is attributed to the changing loyalties of Indian officials, economic worries, and the overall demoralization of the British administration. 
• Contradictions in British Strategy: The text discusses contradictions in the British strategy of countering nationalism, which involved a mix of conciliation and repression. The Cripps Offer of 1942 is mentioned as a turning point, leading to a shift in British policy toward the acceptance of full freedom for India. 
• Formation of the Interim Government: The formation of the Interim Government in 1946, with Congress members and Nehru as de facto head, is highlighted. The League’s acceptance of the Mission Plan, the British attempt to secure Congress cooperation, and the subsequent inclusion of the League in the Interim Government are discussed. 
• Communal Tensions and Direct Action: Communal tensions and the outbreak of violence in Calcutta in August 1946 are attributed to both Muslim and Hindu communal groups. Jinnah’s use of Direct Action is portrayed as a tactic to secure British support for the League. 
• Mountbatten’s Appointment and the June 1948 Deadline: The text notes that the announcement of Lord Mountbatten as the new Viceroy, along with the setting of a deadline for British withdrawal by June 30, 1948, was intended to shock the parties into agreement and avert a constitutional crisis. 
• Acceptance of Partition: The author suggests that the anticipation of freedom from imperial rule lifted the gloom in Congress circles, despite the implied partition of the country in case Muslim-majority provinces did not join the Constituent Assembly. 
•  Attlee’s hope for Indian political parties to unite after the February 20 statement was illusory. 
• Jinnah believed in biding his time to achieve his goal of Pakistan. 
• Conservative members warned that Cripps’ speech invited the Muslim League to hold out for Pakistan. 
• The statement led to civil disobedience in Punjab, bringing down the coalition ministry. 
• Mountbatten became the last Viceroy tasked with winding up the Raj by June 30, 1948. 
• Mountbatten claimed credit for introducing the time limit, but it was originally Wavell’s idea. 
• Mountbatten’s plenipotentiary powers claim is misleading; he referred back to London at each stage. 
• His directive was to explore unity or division options until October 1947, advising on the form of power transfer. 
• Mountbatten’s formula was to divide India but retain maximum unity, leading to the 3rd June Plan. 
• Congress accepted Dominion Status temporarily to handle the explosive situation. 
• Mountbatten’s decisions, including advancing the date to August 15, 1947, and delaying the Boundary Commission Award, worsened the tragedy. 
• Mountbatten’s joint defense machinery failed by December 1947, with Kashmir becoming a conflict zone. 
• Congress’s acceptance of Partition in 1947 was due to long-term failure to include Muslim masses in the national movement. 
• Gandhiji’s helplessness stemmed from the communalization of the people; he accepted Partition due to the people’s desire. 
• Nehru and Patel’s acceptance of Partition in 1947 was seen as a pragmatic response to prevent communal disturbances. 
• The root cause of Congress accepting Partition was its failure to counter Muslim communalism and draw Muslim masses into the national movement. 
• The hope for a united India after British departure and the belief in a temporary Partition proved unreal. 
• Gandhiji chose to walk a lonely path, resisting Partition in his heart and continuing his efforts to foster unity.  

38. The Long – Term Strategy of The National Movement  

Untheorized Character of Nationalist Strategy: 

• Lack of explicit theoretical writings on the nationalist strategy by Indian leaders. 
• Contrasted with leaders of Russian and Chinese Revolutions who wrote extensively on political strategy. 

Evolution of Nationalist Strategy: 

• Phases: Moderate, Radical (Extremist), and Gandhian. 
• Gandhian phase structured and brought fruition to nationalist strategy. 

Character of British Rule and Colonial State: 

• Semi-hegemonic and semi-authoritarian. 
• Relied on force but also established civil institutions and rule of law. 
• Colonial rulers propagated notions of benevolence and invincibility. 

Hegemonic Struggle and War of Position: 

• Nationalist strategy focused on a long-drawn hegemonic struggle, a war of position. 
• Aimed at winning the hearts and minds of the people through various channels. 
• Alternation between extra-legal mass movements and phases of legal activities. 

Objectives of Nationalist Strategy: 

• Active participation of the masses crucial for effectiveness. 
• Politicization and activation of the politically passive masses. 
• Undermining colonial ideology and exposing the true face of colonial rule. 

Influence on State Apparatus and Public Opinion: 

• Efforts to weaken colonial ideology among British people. 
• Attempt to win support within India and expand democratic political space. 

S-T-S’ Strategy (Struggle-Trace-Struggle): 

• Two-phase strategy involving mass movements and non-mass movement phases. 
• Mass movements to confront the colonial state, followed by non-confrontational phases for consolidation. 

Reasons for Two-Phase Strategy: 

• Recognition of the limited capacity of masses for sustained mass movements. 
• Masses needed periods of rest and consolidation. 
• Shift in strategy based on the changing balance of forces and the strength of the movement. 

Role of Constructive Work: 

• Symbolized by khadi, spinning, village industries, national education, Hindu-Muslim unity, and social upliftment. 
• Filled political space during non-mass movement phases and sustained activism. 

Role of Legislative Councils and Constitutional Reforms: 

• Viewed as instruments of both colonial domination and a changing balance of forces. 
• Worked to promote reforms, build confidence, and undermine colonial hegemony. 
• Avoided splits within the nationalist ranks and prevented co-optation by the colonial state. 

Successes and Limitations of Nationalist Strategy: 

• Success in filling the political void, avoiding co-optation, and exposing colonial reforms. 
• Limitations in the exhaustion of mass movements and the need for periodic consolidation. 
• Negotiation and non-cooperation as guiding principles of Congress policy. 

Gandhi’s Non-Violence as Principle vs. Policy: 

• For Gandhi, non-violence was a matter of principle; for contemporaries, it was a matter of policy. 
• Integrated into the overall strategy of the National Congress. 

Non-Violence and Mass Mobilization: 

• Essential for wide mass mobilization. 
• Enabled the participation of groups, especially women, who might have struggled in an armed movement. 

Non-Violence and Hegemonic Struggle: 

• Aligned with the semi-hegemonic, semi-authoritarian nature of the colonial state. 
• Focused on moral force, exposing colonial power in brute force. 

Dilemma for Colonial Authorities: 

• Non-violent mass movements posed a dilemma for the colonial rulers. 
• Suppression led to erosion of colonial hegemony, while not suppressing exposed their weakness. 

Disarmament and Non-Violence: 

• Disarmed Indian people had limited alternatives. 
• Non-violence leveled the political playing field against the armed colonial state. 

Revolutionary Character of Non-Violence: 

• Non-violence seen as revolutionary as armed struggle in other contexts. 
• Part of a Gramscian war of position for structural changes in state and society. 

Success and Failure Evaluation Criteria: 

• Success measured by the extent of undermining colonial hegemony and the politicization of people. 
• Achieved through successive waves of mass movements and phases of truce. 

Strategic Practice of Indian National Movement: 

• Significance comparable to other historical revolutions. 
• Example of a prolonged hegemonic struggle, state transformation, and successful war of position. 

Long-Drawn Hegemonic Struggle: 

• State power not seized in a single revolutionary moment. 
• Main terrain of struggle on the ‘national-popular’ level, involving moral, political, and ideological aspects. 

Perpetual Politics and Stages of Struggle: 

• Mass movements occasional, but politics perpetual. 
• Struggle for state power goes through stages, each marking progress. 

Role of Masses and Cadres: 

• Masses actively participate without depending solely on cadres. 
• Cadres play a critical role in building reserves of counter-hegemony. 

Problems of Popular Mobilization: 

• Commonality with the challenges of waging national-popular and hegemonic struggle in democratic societies. 

Relevance for Revolutionary Transformation: 

• Study of Indian national movement, especially Gandhian strategy, holds significance for understanding revolutionary transformations in democratic states and societies. 

39. The Indian National Movement – The Ideological Dimension  

 
Central Contradiction and Anti-Colonial Ideology: 

• The movement was a response to the central contradiction between colonialism and the interests of the Indian people. 
• Leaders developed a clear understanding of colonial exploitation and its economic mechanisms. 
• The drain of wealth theory was a focal point in critiquing colonialism. 

Evolution of Anti-Colonial Ideology: 

• By the late 19th century, leaders had a comprehensive understanding of various modes of colonial exploitation. 
• The impact of anti-imperialist mass movements and Marxist ideas further refined the understanding. 

Resolution of Central Contradiction: 

• The leadership recognized that the central contradiction could only be resolved through the transformation or overthrow of colonial economic relations. 

Dissemination of Anti-Colonial Ideology: 

• During the Gandhian era, lower cadres spread the anti-colonial critique among the common people. 
• Themes like the drain of wealth and economic exploitation formed the core of mass agitation. 

Anti-Colonial Ideology and Mass Movement: 

• The movement’s scientific anti-colonial ideology was a prime motivator for mass participation. 
• Active participation in mass movements required a strong ideological commitment. 

Socio-Economic-Political Vision: 

• The movement envisioned bourgeois or capitalist independent economic development. 
• Advocated a secular, republican, democratic, and civil libertarian political order based on social equality. 

Commitment to Democracy and Civil Liberties: 

• The movement strongly supported parliamentary democracy and civil liberties. 
• Democratic principles were internalized and indigenized to counter colonial rulers’ authoritarian tendencies. 

Secularism and Social Issues: 

• Secularism and Hindu-Muslim unity were foundational to the nationalist ideology. 
• Opposition to caste oppression and untouchability became integral to the program. 

Recognition of Diversity: 

• The movement acknowledged India as a nation-in-the-making with diverse linguistic, religious, caste, ethnic, and regional differences. 
• Recognized the need to unify the nation while respecting diversity. 

Economic Development and Industrialization: 

• Consensus on the goal of complete economic transformation based on modern industrial and agricultural development. 
• Debate on the role of industrialization resolved after 1920; industrialization seen as crucial for overcoming poverty. 

Attitude towards Foreign Capital: 

• Strong disagreement with the idea of foreign capital as a major instrument for India’s development. 
• Advocated self-reliant economic development free from foreign capital influence. 

Public Sector and Economic Planning: 

• Recognition of the crucial role of the public sector in building an independent and modern economy. 
• Advocacy for economic planning, with the National Planning Committee established in 1938.  

The Bombay Plan: 

• During World War II, the Bombay Plan, devised by prominent Indian capitalists (J.R.D. Tata, G.D. Birla, and Sri Ram), advocated land reforms, a large public sector, and substantial public and private investment. 

World Outlook of the National Movement: 

• The national movement’s ideology was grounded in anti-colonialism, anti-Fascism, peace, and national independence. 

Pro-Poor Orientation: 

• From its early days, the national movement had a pro-poor orientation, linking economic agitation to the growing poverty of the masses. 
• The impact of the Russian Revolution, Gandhi’s emergence, and the growth of left-wing movements further strengthened this orientation. 

Radical Policies and Reforms: 

• The movement adopted radical policies and reform programs during various stages, demanding compulsory primary education, lower taxation for the poor, reduction of salt tax, land reforms, relief from indebtedness, and more. 

Social and Economic Vision: 

• The national movement envisioned socio-economic reforms, including the protection of workers’ rights, promotion of village industries, and the eradication of untouchability. 
• It recognized the multifaceted diversity of the Indian people. 

Socialist Trend in the National Movement: 

• Beginning in the 1920s, a powerful socialist trend emerged within the national movement, challenging the bourgeois developmental perspective. 
• Leaders like Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, and leftist groups played a crucial role in spreading socialist ideas. 

Evolution towards Socialism: 

• Socialist ideas gained momentum in the 1930s, influenced by the Great Depression, the Russian Revolution, and the anti-fascist wave. 
• While socialism did not become the dominant ideology, it became a basic constituent, continuously shifting the movement leftward. 

Role of Jawaharlal Nehru: 

• Nehru played a key role in popularizing the vision of a socialist India within the national movement. 
• He emphasized the need for economic emancipation alongside political freedom. 

Agrarian Policy Evolution: 

• The agrarian policy of the Congress evolved, accepting demands for substantial reduction in rent, abolition of feudal dues, fixity of tenure, and a living wage for agricultural laborers. 

Gandhian Social Outlook: 

• Gandhiji’s social outlook, despite not adopting a class analysis, aimed at social transformation and basic changes in economic and political power. 
• Gandhiji’s evolving radicalism included opposition to private property, condemnation of exploitation inherent in capitalism, and nationalization of large-scale industry. 

Gandhiji’s Agrarian Radicalism: 

• Gandhiji shifted towards agrarian radicalism, asserting that land belongs to those who work on it. 
• He suggested that peasants might take the land without compensation to landlords. 

Overall Vision: 

• The national movement’s vision combined anti-colonial ideology with a pro-poor radical socio-economic orientation, making it a popular, people’s movement.