Introduction

• The Harappan seal is a distinctive artefact of the Harappan or Indus Valley civilisation.
• Seals were made of steatite, a type of stone, and often featured animal motifs and undeciphered script.
• Archaeological evidence, including houses, pots, ornaments, tools, and seals, provides insights into Harappan life.
• Archaeological material is interpreted to understand the civilisation, though interpretations may evolve over time.
• Certain aspects of the Harappan civilisation remain unknown and may never be fully understood.

Beginnings

• There were several archaeological cultures in the region prior to the Mature Harappan.
• These cultures had distinctive pottery, evidence of agriculture, pastoralism, and some crafts.
• Settlements were generally small, with virtually no large buildings.
• Recent archaeological evidence indicates the emergence of Harappan culture from early farming communities dated around 7000 BCE.
• The urban phase (Mature Harappan) was a result of gradual transformation and internal development during the early Harappan phase.

Subsistence Strategies

• The Mature Harappan culture developed in areas previously occupied by Early Harappan cultures.
• These cultures shared common elements, including subsistence strategies.
• The Harappans consumed a variety of plant and animal products, including fish.
• Archaeo-botanists study charred grains and seeds to reconstruct dietary practices.
• Grains found at Harappan sites include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea, and sesame.
• Millets are found at sites in Gujarat, while finds of rice are relatively rare.
• Animal bones found include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, and pig, suggesting domestication.
• Wild species such as boar, deer, and gharial are also found, but it is unclear if they were hunted by Harappans or obtained from hunting communities.
• Bones of fish and fowl are also found at Harappan sites.

Agricultural technologies

• Agriculture is indicated by finds of grain, but reconstructing agricultural practices is challenging.
• Representations on seals and terracotta sculptures suggest the bull was known, implying oxen were used for ploughing.
• Terracotta models of ploughs have been found at Cholistan and Banawali (Haryana).
• Evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan (Rajasthan) shows furrows at right angles, suggesting two crops were grown together.
• Archaeologists debate whether stone blades in wooden handles or metal tools were used for harvesting.
• Most Harappan sites are in semi-arid lands, indicating a need for irrigation.
• Traces of canals were found at Shortughai (Afghanistan) but not in Punjab or Sind, possibly due to silting.
• Water from wells and reservoirs like those at Dholavira (Gujarat) may have been used for irrigation.

Mohanjodaro: A Planned Urban Centre

• The Harappan civilisation is notable for its urban centres, with Mohenjodaro being a prominent example, though Harappa was the first site discovered.
• The settlement was divided into the Citadel (smaller, higher) and the Lower Town (larger, lower).
• The Citadel was built on mud brick platforms and physically separated by walls.
• The Lower Town was also walled, with buildings on platforms serving as foundations.
• Constructing the platforms required an estimated four million person-days, indicating large-scale labour mobilisation.
• Building activity was confined to fixed areas on platforms, suggesting planned settlement.
• Bricks, whether sun-dried or baked, followed a standardised ratio of length and breadth being four and twice the height, used across all Harappan settlements.

Laying out drains

• A carefully planned drainage system was a distinctive feature of Harappan cities.
• In the Lower Town, roads and streets followed a grid pattern, intersecting at right angles.
• Streets with drains were laid out first, with houses constructed along them.
• To channel domestic waste water into the street drains, each house required at least one wall along a street.

Domestic architecture

• The Lower Town at Mohenjodaro showcases residential buildings centred on a courtyard, with rooms on all sides.
• The courtyard likely served as the centre for activities like cooking and weaving during hot, dry weather.
• There was a notable concern for privacy, with no ground-level windows and main entrances not offering direct views of the interior or courtyard.
• Each house had a brick-paved bathroom with drains connected to the street drainage system.
• Some houses had staircases leading to a second storey or the roof.
• Many houses had wells, often in accessible rooms, possibly for use by passers-by.
• The total number of wells in Mohenjodaro is estimated to be around 700.

The Citadel

• The Citadel housed structures likely used for special public purposes, including the warehouse and the Great Bath.
• The warehouse was a massive structure, with brick foundations remaining, while the upper portions of wood have decayed.
• The Great Bath was a large rectangular tank in a courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all four sides.
• Two flights of steps, on the north and south, led into the watertight tank, made with bricks set on edge and gypsum mortar.
• Rooms on three sides included one with a large well, and water from the tank flowed into a huge drain.
• A smaller building across a lane to the north had eight bathrooms with drains connecting to a corridor drain.
• The unique structure and its location on the Citadel suggest it was used for special ritual baths.

Tracking Social Differences

Burials

• Archaeologists study burials to identify social or economic differences within a culture.
• The massive pyramids of Egypt, contemporaneous with the Harappan civilisation, were royal burials with enormous wealth.
• At Harappan sites, the dead were generally laid in pits, sometimes lined with bricks, possibly indicating social differences.
• Some graves contained pottery and ornaments, suggesting a belief in their use in the afterlife.
• Jewellery was found in burials of both men and women, including a male burial with three shell rings, a jasper bead, and hundreds of micro beads.
• Some burials included copper mirrors, but overall, the Harappans appear to have avoided burying precious items with the dead.

Looking for “luxuries”

• Archaeologists classify artefacts into utilitarian (daily use) and luxury (rare, costly) categories.
• Utilitarian objects are made from ordinary materials like stone or clay, including querns, pottery, needles, and flesh-rubbers, and are widely found across settlements.
• Luxuries are typically rare or made from non-local materials or with complicated technologies, such as faience pots, which were difficult to make.
• The classification becomes complex when everyday objects, like spindle whorls made of rare materials (e.g., faience), are found.
• Rare objects made from valuable materials are typically concentrated in large settlements like Mohenjodaro and Harappa, and are rare in smaller settlements.
• Miniature pots of faience, possibly perfume bottles, are mostly found in Mohenjodaro and Harappa, with none from smaller settlements like Kalibangan.
• Gold was also rare and likely precious, with gold jewellery found in hoards at Harappan sites.

Finding Out About Craft Production

• This tiny settlement (less than 7 hectares) was primarily focused on craft production, including bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making, and weight-making.
• The variety of materials used for beads is remarkable, including carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz, steatite, copper, bronze, gold, shell, faience, and terracotta.
• Some beads were made of multiple stones, cemented together, or of stone with gold caps.
• Bead shapes included disc-shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped, and segmented, with some decorated by incising, painting, or etching designs.
• Steatite, a soft stone, was easily worked, and some beads were moulded from steatite powder paste, allowing for more varied shapes than those made from harder stones.
• The production of steatite micro beads remains a mystery for archaeologists studying ancient technology.
• Experiments show that the red colour of carnelian was achieved by firing the yellowish raw material and beads at various stages, followed by chipping, flaking, grinding, polishing, and drilling.
• Specialised drills have been found at Chanhudaro, Lothal, and Dholavira.
• Nageshwar and Balakot, located near the coast, were specialised centres for shell objects, including bangles, ladles, and inlay, which were distributed to other settlements.
• Finished products, like beads from Chanhudaro and Lothal, were likely transported to large urban centres like Mohenjodaro and Harappa.

Identifying centres of production

• To identify centres of craft production, archaeologists look for raw materials like stone nodules, whole shells, and copper ore.
• Tools, unfinished objects, rejects, and waste material are also key indicators.
• Waste is one of the best indicators of craft work, as discarded pieces of shell or stone will often be found at the production site.
• Sometimes, larger waste pieces were repurposed to make smaller objects, but minuscule bits are typically left behind in the work area.
• These traces suggest that craft production occurred not only in small, specialised centres but also in large cities like Mohenjodaro and Harappa.

Strategies for Procuring Materials

• A variety of materials was used for craft production, including locally available clay and materials like stone, timber, and metal that had to be procured from outside the alluvial plain.
• Terracotta toy models of bullock carts suggest that these were a key means of transporting goods and people across land routes.
• Riverine routes along the Indus and its tributaries, as well as coastal routes, were also likely used for transportation.

Materials from the subcontinent and beyond

• The Harappans procured materials for craft production by establishing settlements in areas where resources were available, such as Nageshwar and Balakot for shell.
• Other sites included Shortughai in Afghanistan, near the source of lapis lazuli, and Lothal, near sources of carnelian, steatite, and metal.
• The Harappans may have sent expeditions to areas like the Khetri region in Rajasthan (for copper) and south India (for gold), establishing communication with local communities.
• Occasional finds of Harappan artefacts, such as steatite micro beads, in these areas suggest contact.
• In the Khetri area, evidence of the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture indicates a wealth of copper objects, possibly supplied to the Harappans.

Contact with distant lands

• Recent archaeological finds suggest that copper was likely sourced from Oman, with chemical analyses showing traces of nickel in both Omani copper and Harappan artefacts, indicating a common origin.
• A distinctive Harappan jar, coated with a thick layer of black clay, has been found at Omani sites, possibly used for trade in exchange for copper.
• Mesopotamian texts from the third millennium BCE mention copper from Magan, likely referring to Oman, and indicate that copper found in Mesopotamian sites also contains traces of nickel.
• Other signs of long-distance contact include Harappan seals, weights, dice, and beads.
• Mesopotamian texts refer to regions like Dilmun (probably Bahrain), Magan, and Meluhha (possibly the Harappan region), mentioning products from Meluhha like carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and wood.
• A Mesopotamian myth mentions the haja-bird of Meluhha, possibly the peacock, raising the question of whether it got its name from its call.
• Sea-based communication is likely, as Mesopotamian texts describe Meluhha as a land of seafarers, and depictions of ships and boats are found on seals.

Seals, Script, Weights

Seals and sealings

• Seals and sealings played a crucial role in long-distance communication.
• Goods were often sent in bags, with the mouth tied using rope and wet clay affixed to the knot.
• Seals were pressed into the clay, leaving an impression.
• The intact sealing upon arrival signified that the contents had not been tampered with.
• The sealing also served to convey the identity of the sender.

An enigmatic script

• Harappan seals often had a line of writing, likely representing the name and title of the owner.
• The motif, typically an animal, may have had a symbolic meaning, especially for those who could not read.
• Most inscriptions were short, with the longest containing about 26 signs.
• The script was not alphabetical (too many signs), with 375–400 signs identified.
• It was written from right to left, as evidenced by varying spacing on seals.
• Writing has been found on a variety of objects, including seals, copper tools, jars, tablets, jewelry, bone rods, and even a signboard.
• The presence of writing on both durable and perishable materials suggests widespread literacy in Harappan society.

Weights

• Exchanges were regulated by a precise system of weights, primarily made of chert, usually cubical and without markings.
• The lower denominations followed a binary system (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32), while the higher denominations followed the decimal system (160, 200, 320, 640).
• The smaller weights were likely used for weighing jewelry and beads.
• Metal scale-pans have also been found, indicating the use of balance scales.

Ancient Authority

• Complex decisions were likely made and implemented by a central authority or organized system within Harappan society.
• Uniformity of artefacts (such as pottery, seals, weights, and bricks) suggests a coordinated effort or standardization across vast regions, from Jammu to Gujarat.
• Bricks were produced with a uniform ratio throughout the region, indicating a standardized production system.
• Strategic settlement locations and the mobilization of labour for brickmaking, wall construction, and platform building imply the existence of a system that could organize and direct large-scale activities.
• It is likely that these activities were coordinated by a form of centralized authority or administrative organization, though the specifics remain unclear.

Palaces and kings

• Archaeological evidence does not provide clear answers regarding the center of power in Harappan society.
• A large building at Mohenjodaro was labeled as a palace, but it lacked spectacular finds associated with it.
• The “priest-king” statue is a common label, but this interpretation is based on parallels with Mesopotamian priest-kings, and there is no definitive evidence connecting the figure to political power.
• Ritual practices of the Harappans are not well understood, and it is unclear whether those who performed these rituals held political authority.
• Some archaeologists believe that Harappan society had no rulers, or that multiple rulers existed across different settlements (e.g., Mohenjodaro and Harappa).
• Others argue for the existence of a single state, citing standardization of artefacts, planned settlements, and the strategic placement of settlements near raw material sources.
• It is possible that the Harappans practiced a form of democratic governance.
• Many structures in the Harappan cities seem to have been built for utilitarian purposes, suggesting practical decision-making rather than centralized power.

The End of the Civilisation

• By 1800 BCE, many Mature Harappan sites in regions like Cholistan had been abandoned, with a population shift to Gujarat, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh.
• In the few sites still occupied after 1900 BCE, there was a transformation in material culture:
  • The distinctive artefacts (seals, weights, special beads) disappeared.
  • Writing, long-distance trade, and craft specialisation also declined.
  • A rural lifestyle emerged, marked by less use of materials, fewer artefacts, and deteriorating house construction techniques.
  • Large public structures were no longer built, signaling a move away from urban life.
• Explanations for the collapse of the Harappan civilisation include:
  • Climatic change, deforestation, excessive floods, shifting or drying rivers, and overuse of resources.
  • While these factors may explain specific site declines, they do not account for the collapse of the entire civilisation.
  • The Harappan state likely ended, marked by the disappearance of key symbols of central authority (seals, script, standardised weights).
  • Decline and abandonment of cities suggests a loss of a unifying political structure.
• New cities would not emerge until over a millennium later in a completely different region.

Discovering the Harappan Civilisation

• Harappan civilisation was largely forgotten after its cities fell into ruin. People who later inhabited the area did not understand the artefacts that surfaced, whether due to floods, soil erosion, or fieldwork.
• Cunningham’s focus as the first Director-General of the ASI in the mid-19th century was on Early Historic (6th century BCE–4th century CE) and later periods, using written texts and inscriptions as primary guides for archaeological work.
• His method involved excavating based on the accounts of Chinese Buddhist pilgrims who had visited the subcontinent, but Harappa, which wasn’t mentioned by these pilgrims and wasn’t recognized as an Early Historic city, didn’t fit into his investigation framework.
• Harappan artefacts were occasionally found, but Cunningham didn’t realize their historical significance. For example, a Harappan seal given to him by an Englishman was documented, but he couldn’t place it in the historical timeline because he primarily focused on cities from the Ganga valley period.
• This historical oversight was common among scholars of the time, as the Harappan civilisation was not recognized until much later.

A new old civilisation

• Early 20th century discoveries by Daya Ram Sahni at Harappa and Rakhal Das Banerji at Mohenjodaro revealed seals that were much older than the Early Historic levels, leading to the realization of their significance.
• In 1924, John Marshall, Director-General of the ASI, announced the discovery of a new civilisation in the Indus Valley, marking the recognition of an ancient civilisation contemporaneous with Mesopotamia.
• Marshall’s discovery changed the understanding of Indian history, revealing that the civilisation was much older than previously thought. His efforts led to the global recognition of the Indus Valley Civilisation.
• Marshall’s tenure marked a shift in Indian archaeology, as he brought professional expertise from his work in Greece and Crete, focusing on both spectacular finds and patterns of everyday life.
• However, Marshall’s excavation approach, which used horizontal units and ignored stratigraphy, led to a loss of valuable contextual information about the artefacts recovered. This methodology, while comprehensive, hindered the preservation of the precise historical context of the findings.

New techniques and questions

• R.E.M. Wheeler, appointed Director-General of the ASI in 1944, corrected previous excavation practices by focusing on stratigraphy, ensuring that excavations followed the layers of the mound, rather than uniform horizontal digging.
• After the partition of India in 1947, the major Harappan sites became part of Pakistan, prompting Indian archaeologists to search for new sites within India. Kutch, Punjab, and Haryana became focal areas for these efforts, leading to the discovery of significant sites like Kalibangan, Lothal, Rakhi Garhi, and Dholavira.
• New challenges in Harappan archaeology include understanding the logic behind site locations and the functions of various artefacts, with some archaeologists seeking a cultural sequence of the civilisation.
• From the 1980s onward, there has been growing international collaboration in Harappan archaeology, with scientists from both the subcontinent and abroad using modern scientific techniques. These include surface exploration, analysis of clay, stone, metal, and plant and animal remains, and careful examination of every piece of evidence, promising to unveil more insights about the civilisation.

Problems of Piecing Together the Past

• Material evidence rather than the Harappan script plays a crucial role in reconstructing Harappan life. This includes pottery, tools, ornaments, and household objects.
• Organic materials like cloth, leather, wood, and reeds typically decompose, especially in tropical regions, while more durable materials like stone, burnt clay, and metal survive.
• Only broken or useless objects were discarded; others were likely recycled.
• Intact valuable artefacts were either lost in the past or hoarded and never retrieved, making such finds accidental rather than typical.

Classifying finds

• Artefact classification involves two main principles: by material (stone, clay, metal, bone, ivory, etc.) and by function (tool, ornament, ritual use, etc.).
• Function identification is often influenced by the artefact’s resemblance to modern items, such as beads or pots. Context is key: archaeologists consider where an artefact was found—whether in a house, drain, grave, or kiln.
• In some cases, indirect evidence is necessary to understand certain aspects, such as clothing. For instance, traces of cotton at Harappan sites or sculptural depictions provide insights into textiles.
• Frames of reference are vital in archaeology. For example, the first Harappan seal was only understood once it was placed in the context of the cultural sequence and compared with Mesopotamian finds.

Problems of interpretation

• Archaeological interpretations of religious practices are often speculative and based on associations with familiar symbols or objects.
• Terracotta figurines of women, adorned with jewelry and elaborate headdresses, were initially interpreted as mother goddesses.
• Statuary of seated men in standardized postures, like the “priest-king,” was also assigned religious significance.
• Structures such as the Great Bath and fire altars at Kalibangan and Lothal were thought to have ritual purposes.
• Seals depicting ritual scenes or plant motifs have been linked to nature worship, and animals like the unicorn are considered mythical creatures.
• Some seals show a seated figure in a “yogic” posture, often associated with proto-Shiva, a form of the Hindu god, although this connection is speculative.
• Conical stone objects have been interpreted as lingas.
• Interpretations often draw parallels with later religious traditions, which is useful for material objects like pots but becomes more uncertain when applied to religious symbols.
• For instance, the proto-Shiva seals depict a figure that doesn’t align with the description of Rudra in the Rigveda, complicating assumptions of continuity from early to later Hindu deities. Some scholars suggest the figure might be a shaman rather than a god.