• The development of parliamentary institutions in England is based on traditions.

• The Assembly of prominent nobles and churchmen formed by King Henry I in the 11th century is considered a precursor of Parliament.

• In 1215, King John accepted the Magna Carta, marking the beginning of parliamentary practice.

• In 1265, a session of the Magnum Councilium (Great Council) included representatives, nobles, officials, and priests, starting the tradition of inviting people’s representatives.

• Landlords in each county could send two representatives.

• The Model Parliament during Edward’s period featured separate groups for clergymen, landlords, military officers, and nobles, and a separate group of representatives from counties and towns.

• These groups met in separate houses: the House of Lords and the House of Commons, establishing a bicameral Parliament.

• Parliament’s rights were sometimes curtailed, but it made remarkable progress during the Tudor period (1485-1603) amid struggles for supremacy between the King and Parliament.

• The Stuart rulers often tried to exercise special privileges, causing conflicts with Parliament.

• James I distrusted Parliament and issued ordinances without its consultation during financial crises, raising the question: “Who owns the national exchequer — King or Parliament?”

• James I was succeeded by Charles I, who in 1628 accepted the Petition of Rights but later dissolved Parliament and ruled as a dictator for 11 years.

• Parliament was summoned again in 1640 but had a short tenure due to conflicts and was summoned repeatedly because of war with Scotland.

• The Long Parliament lasted about 20 years, challenging the monarchy and making it obligatory to call Parliament sessions periodically.

• In 1649, during the Long Parliament, King Charles I was imprisoned and executed, marking a victory for Parliament.

• The Glorious Revolution (1688) was a turning point in England’s constitutional history; people revolted against James II, placing Mary and William of Holland on the throne.

• Mary and William had to swear an oath to uphold the Proclamation of Rights, amended as the Bill of Rights (1689), establishing Parliament as the highest authority, not the King.

• William accepted the Parliament’s authority and did not interfere with its activities.

• By choosing ministers from the parliamentary majority (Whigs or Tories), William established the Cabinet system.

• Until the early 19th century, the British parliamentary system did not truly represent the people; the House of Lords was more powerful than the House of Commons.

• The franchise was limited to the upper classes; Parliament mainly represented rotten boroughs and the affluent class.

• The First Reform Act (1832) introduced revolutionary changes, democratizing the House of Commons, ending the King’s power, reducing the House of Lords’ power, and establishing the responsible council of ministers as the ultimate administrative authority.

• The House of Commons became a true representative of the people.

Parliamentary Reformers

• The cabinet form of government was established in Britain in the 18th century, but this did not mean true democracy was in force.

• The absolute power of the King ended, but Parliament was still dominated by feudal barons.

• People made sustained efforts to democratize Parliament through reforms.

• At the beginning of the 19th century, the condition of democracy in Britain was weak.

• The British Parliament had two houses:

  • The House of Lords was dominated by landlords and bishops, who were hereditary members.

  • The House of Commons was intended to represent the people but was dominated by elites.

• The constituencies for the House of Commons elections were absurd and irrational:

  • Before the Industrial Revolution, most people lived in rural areas, so villages elected most representatives.

  • Despite ruined villages and growing cities, each village still elected at least two representatives, while cities had no representation.

• There was disparity in voter qualifications:

  • Some constituencies allowed independent landlords to vote.

  • Others deprived rich businessmen and industrialists of voting rights.

• Voters lacked freedom to vote due to absence of secret ballot; votes were cast openly, allowing landlords to threaten and coerce voters.

• The Industrial Revolution created two classes: industrialists (rich but without parliamentary influence) and workers (who wanted representation).

• Socialism was developing as laborers prepared to show organized strength by mid-19th century.

• The franchise was very limited; before 1832, only about 30,000 out of 14 million people could vote.

• The electoral system was defective and needed drastic reform.

• Parliamentary reformers worked to bring about these changes.

• John Locke in the late 18th century highlighted Parliament’s shortcomings but with no success.

• In 1766, Earl of Chatham demanded increased county representation, but it was rejected.

• Wilkes proposed town representation, which was also denied.

• The Duke of Richmond proposed adult franchise, annual elections, and equal constituencies, but his proposals failed.

• In 1780, Charles Fox called for uniform franchise and voting by ballot, but was ignored.

• The Whig politicians supported the French Revolution (1789) and parliamentary reforms gained momentum.

• The outbreak of war between Britain and France led to shelving of reform plans and repression of radical reformists.

• The war ended in 1815, after which the demand for reforms surged again.

• Reform supporters included Bentham and Russell, who favored changes.