Cities, Kings, and Renunciants: North India, c. 600–300 BCE
Chapter – 6
Table of Contents
- In the Mahaparinibbana Sutta, the Buddha discusses his imminent demise with disciple Ananda and insists on dying in Kusinara, emphasizing the historical significance of the place.
- The 6th century BCE in the Ganga valley marked an era of intense philosophical inquiry, accompanied by significant political, social, and economic changes.
- The date of the Buddha’s death (parinibbana) is central to the chronologies of early historical dynasties and post-Vedic texts.
- Various chronologies propose different dates for the Buddha’s parinibbana, with the “uncorrected long chronology” suggesting 544/543 BCE, and the “corrected long chronology” placing it between 486 and 477 BCE.
- The “short chronology” based on Sanskrit and Chinese sources suggests a parinibbana date around 368 BCE.
- Recent scholarship, based on the Pali chronicles, suggests a parinibbana date between 400 and 350 BCE.
- The Ahraura version of Ashoka’s minor rock edict 1, indicating 256 years between Buddha’s death and the edict, could potentially place the parinibbana in 483 BCE or earlier.
- The exact date of the Buddha’s parinibbana remains debated, with Indian scholars favoring c. 480 BCE and Western scholars leaning towards more recent dates.
The Sources: Literary and Archaeological
- The Pali canon, comprising various Nikayas, was composed between the 5th and 3rd centuries BCE and provides a historical source for the middle Ganga valley.
- The Jatakas, part of the Khuddaka Nikaya, are dated to the 3rd centuries BCE–2nd century CE and should not be used for the 6th century BCE.
- Brahmanical texts, including Dharmasutras, Shrautasutras, and early Grihyasutras, are dated between c. 600 and 300 BCE, offering normative perspectives on practices.
- Jaina texts, including canonical texts and others, provide another source for historical information.
- Greek and Latin narratives recount Alexander’s invasion of India (327–26 BCE) and the political situation in the northwest at the time.
- Archaeology focuses on Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) culture in north India, dated between the 7th century BCE and 2nd/1st centuries BCE, with early and late phases.
- Recent radiocarbon dates from Ayodhya suggest a possible NBPW phase dating back to c. 1000 BCE.
- NBPW sites include early punch-marked coins, marking the beginning of currency use in the subcontinent.
Panini and his Ashtadhyayi
- Panini, a grammarian, lived in the 5th or 4th century BCE.
- His “Ashtadhyayi” is the oldest surviving Sanskrit grammar, consisting of 3,996 aphorisms.
- Panini’s grammar transitioned from Vedic Sanskrit to classical Sanskrit, making him a widely acknowledged authority.
- He influenced later Sanskrit grammarians like Katyayana and Patanjali, who held him in high regard.
- Panini’s life details are limited, but he likely hailed from Shalatura in Gandhara, the northwestern region.
- Later traditions and texts, including legendary stories, connect Panini with historical events and divine inspiration.
- The “Ashtadhyayi” references various aspects of his time, providing valuable historical information on the 5th/4th century BCE.
Northern Black Polished Ware
- NBPW (Northern Black Polished Ware) is a pottery style found in ancient India.
- Its name is somewhat misleading, as it is not limited to northern India, not always black, nor consistently polished.
- NBPW is well-fired and made of fine, well-levigated clay, coming in various shades and colors.
- It includes various shapes like bowls, dishes, knobbed lids, handis, and miniature vases.
- The pottery has a glossy surface, and its production technique remains a subject of debate.
- It is typically unpainted, but some examples feature painted designs in yellow and light vermillion.
- NBPW has been discovered at around 1,500 sites across India, spanning from the northwest to Andhra Pradesh and from Gujarat to Bengal.
- Concentrated areas of NBPW sites are found in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, UP, Bihar, and West Bengal.
- It often follows the PGW phase in the western region but is preceded by the Black and Red Ware (BRW) phase in the eastern part of India.
The 16 Great States
- Historical sources like Later Vedic texts, epics, and Puranas provide information about ancient Indian kings and dynasties.
- However, the earlier parts of epic-Puranic genealogies are considered mythical, while the later ones have a historical basis.
- Notable historical figures like Parikshit, Janamejaya, and Janaka might have lived between the 9th and 7th centuries BCE.
- Political history of north India becomes clearer from the 6th century BCE onwards, with states emerging in a region stretching from Gandhara to Anga.
- Buddhist and Jaina texts list 16 powerful states known as the mahajanapadas in the early 6th century BCE.
- These mahajanapadas included both monarchies (rajyas) and non-monarchical states (ganas or sanghas), which were oligarchies, not republics.
- Major states like Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, and Avanti played crucial roles in this period.
- Kashi and Kosala had longstanding rivalries, with Kashi eventually absorbed into Kosala.
- Anga was located in modern-day Bhagalpur and had its capital at Champa, a significant city and trade center.
- Magadha, with its capital at Girivraja, extended from the Ganga to the Vindhyan spurs and played a central role in the region’s history.
- The Vajji confederacy in eastern India included notable clans like the Vajjis, Lichchhavis, Videhas, and Nayas.
- Malla was a confederacy of nine clans in the region west of Vajji, with two important centers at Kusinara and Pava.
- The Chedi kingdom was situated in the eastern part of Bundelkhand, with its capital at Sotthivatinagara.
- Vatsa, located south of the Ganga, was known for its fine cotton textiles, with Kaushambi as its capital.
- The Kurus, in the Buddha’s time, were ruled by a chieftain named Koravya.
- Panchala had two parts, north and south, with capitals at Ahichchhatra and Kampilya, and the famous city of Kanyakubja (Kanauj) was in its territory.
- Matsya’s principality was in the Jaipur area, with its capital at Viratanagara.
- Shurasenas had their capital at Mathura (Madura), associated with the Yadavas and Vrishnis.
- Assaka was located on the Godavari river, with its capital at Potana/Podana (Bodhan).
- Avanti was divided by the Vindhyas into a northern and southern part, with Mahishmati and Ujjayini as its important towns.
- Gandhara included areas in modern Pakistan and the Kashmir valley, with its capital at Takshashila (Taxila).
- Kamboja, often associated with Gandhara, encompassed regions up to Kafiristan, and the Kambojas were a monarchy in the 6th century BCE.