MEANING OF DEMOCRACY

• The idea of democracy has existed in Western political thought since ancient times, first used by the Greek historian Herodotus in the 5th century BC to mean ‘rule by the people’.
• The term democracy combines two Greek words: demos (the people) and kratien (to rule).
• Abraham Lincoln‘s definition of democracy as “government of the people, by the people, for the people” closely reflects its literal meaning, where ultimate authority is vested in the people, and public policy aligns with their will and interests.
• Several exponents of democracy, such as John Austin, James Bryce, A.V. Dicey, John Seeley, and A.L. Lowell, treated democracy as a form of government.
• Lowell saw democracy as an experiment in government, while Seeley described it as government in which everyone has a share.
• D.D. Raphael critiques Lincoln’s definition, arguing that all government is technically “of the people,” so “government for the people” is ambiguous, as even benevolent despotism can serve the people’s interests.
• The essential idea of democratic government is ‘government by the people’.
• Benevolent despotism refers to a government where the ruler has concentrated power, not bound by law or constitution, but rules for the benefit of the people at will.
• Direct democracy refers to a system where all public decisions are made by the entire body of citizens. This was practiced in ancient Athens but was not truly democratic, as most of the population (slaves, women) had no political rights.
• In modern times, direct democracy is impractical due to the size of modern democratic states, leading to the evolution of indirect or representative democracy, where people elect representatives for a set period.
• “Government by the people” implies public decisions should be made with the approval of all, but in practice, decisions are often made by a majority vote.
• Majority rule means public decisions are rarely unanimous, diluting the strength of individual approval, but ideally, decisions are still made in the interests of all the people.
• The principle of democracy also requires due regard for minority views, with the majority behaving responsibly and accommodating minority opinions.
• In a multicultural society, people from various cultural groups (e.g., by caste, region, religion, language, etc.) should enjoy freedom to preserve their cultural traits and feel safe.
• Multicultural society refers to a society where people from different cultural groups live together as equal citizens.
• Democracy relies on the wisdom of ordinary people, as noted by Harry Emerson Fosdick, who believed that democracy is based on the conviction that there are extraordinary possibilities in ordinary people.
• Demagogues appeal to people’s emotions rather than rational arguments, sometimes swaying public judgment.
• Some argue for replacing democracy with a meritocracy, where governance is by those who have proved their competence.
• Meritocracy, introduced by Michael Young in The Rise of the Meritocracy (1958), is based on a system where people get positions based on competence and qualifications, rather than age, gender, race, or wealth.
• Critics of meritocracy argue that society should focus on equality of outcome rather than equality of opportunity, suggesting that democracy is more conducive to social development.
• Alfred Emanuel Smith famously stated, “All the ills of democracy can be cured by more democracy.”

CLASSICAL NOTION OF DEMOCRACY

FROM ANCIENT TO MODERN TIMES

• Democracy has a long tradition, but its essence and grounds of justification have evolved over time.
• Plato and Aristotle viewed democracy in some ancient Greek city-states, especially Athens, with key features like:
  • Equal participation of all freemen in the common affairs of the polis (city-state).
  • Public decisions made in an atmosphere of free discussion.
  • Respect for law and established procedures.
• Despite these features, democracy was not regarded as an ideal form of rule.
• Plato criticized democracy because the people lacked the education to select the best rulers and wise decisions. Eloquent speakers could manipulate public opinion and gain office, leading to incompetent governance.
• Aristotle identified democracy as rule of the many, particularly the poor. He classified it as a perverted form of government, as it represented selfish interests, not the state’s interests.
• Aristotle observed that no government forms were stable during his time, leading to frequent upheavals.
• In his Politics, Aristotle analyzed different forms of government and noted that democracy had advantages like the collective wisdom of the people, though individual judgment might be poorer.
• Aristotle also pointed out the demerits of democracy, arguing it was based on a false assumption of equality. People believed that being equal in one respect (e.g., before the law) meant equality in all respects, leading to a sacrifice of ability for numbers.
• Democracy was criticized for being easily manipulated by trickery and for people’s fickleness. Aristotle suggested that the ballot should be limited to the intelligent.
• Aristotle’s solution was a mixed constitution, combining aristocracy and democracy as the best form of government, where rulers’ powers were restrained.
• Later philosophers like Polybius, Cicero, and Saint Augustine advanced the idea of the mixed constitution, subordinating rulers to virtue or law.
• Machiavelli (1469-1527) in his Discourses (1531) and Montesquieu (1669-1755) in The Spirit of the Laws (1748) saw democracy as a pure form of government, best included as one part of a mixed republican constitution.
• Early social contract theorists like Hobbes (1588-1679) and Locke (1632-1704) based political legitimacy on consent of the people, challenging traditional dictatorships and the divine right of kings.
• The social contract theory recognized the state as an artificial creation meant to protect natural liberty and rights, laying the foundation for modern democratic theory.
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-78) expanded on social contract theory and introduced popular sovereignty, becoming a key early theorist of democracy.
• Rousseau’s general will refers to the collective will of the people, representing both individual interests and the common good of the community. It forms the basis of popular sovereignty.
• The classical concept of democracy was further developed by A.V. Dicey (1835-1922) and James Bryce (1838-1922).