I. IDEOLOGY AS A SET OF IDEAS

IDEOLOGY, POLITICS AND POLITICAL THEORY

• The term ‘ideology’ in political theory applies in two contexts: (a) a set of ideas accepted as true by a group without further examination, and (b) the science of ideas examining how ideas are formed, how truth is distorted, and how to overcome distortions to find true knowledge.
• Ideology is often seen as a set of ideas accepted by a group to justify or denounce a particular social, economic, or political organization. It is based on faith and lacks a scientific basis.
• Adherents of an ideology do not verify its validity, leading to conflicting ideologies among different groups, which results in inevitable differences and love-hate relationships.
• Ideology answers key questions such as: Who should rule? How should rulers be selected? According to what principles should a government operate? What institutions should be maintained or replaced?
• When ideology defends an existing system or advocates limited or radical changes, it becomes a part of politics. It can lend legitimacy to the ruling class or urge for revolution.
• Ideology is action-oriented, motivating adherents to fight for a cause and make sacrifices. Examples include nationalism, which inspires people to defend their nation, or communalism, which may incite hatred and violence.
• Conflicting ideologies defend conflicting ideals, some serving vested interests and others challenging irrational beliefs for progress. Examples include imperialism (exploitation) and environmentalism (protection of natural resources).
• Political theories and ideologies are often described using the same terms, like liberalism, socialism, and communism. However, these terms may not always indicate identical things.
• Some believe political theories and ideologies are closely linked, as political theories sometimes justify or prescribe actions, originating from political situations or struggles.
• G.H. Sabine viewed political theories as part of politics, reflecting upon political actions, ends, means, and obligations. However, his view is not absolute, as political theory also requires critical evaluation of these theories.
• Political theory involves segregating truth from political considerations. For example, Aristotle’s defense of slavery may be denounced, but his insights on constitutional stability hold eternal value.
• The critical function of political theory distinguishes it from political ideologies. While ideology is action-driven, political theory involves a disinterested search for a better society through continuous investigation and critical examination.
• According to Andrew Hacker, political theory, whether philosophical or scientific, is always dispassionate and disinterested, unlike ideologies that defend or condemn specific political systems.
• If a theory is influenced by an ideology, it may become distorted. Political theory requires a disinterested search for the best system, while ideology justifies or condemns political arrangements.
• Political science involves impartial observation of political and social reality, whereas ideology focuses on selective parts of reality, providing a distorted description.
• Genuine political theory requires absolute impartiality, examining and comparing political theories critically to discern their strengths and weaknesses.
• Each political theory should be critically examined, compared with other relevant theories, and evaluated in its context. Ideology, in the second sense, also refers to the science of ideas, emphasizing the need for a critical understanding of political ideologies.

II. IDEOLOGY AS THE SCIENCE OF IDEAS

• The term ‘ideology’ was originally coined to describe the science of ideas, focusing on how ideas are formed, how they are distorted, and how to distinguish true ideas from false ideas.
• Destutt de Tracy (1754-1836), a French scholar, first used the term ‘ideology’ between 1801-1815 in his writings on the Enlightenment. He defined it as the study of the process of forming ideas, a science of ideas.
• Tracy observed that ideas are stimulated by the physical environment, and empirical learning (knowledge from sense-experience: sight, sound, smell, taste, touch) is the only true source of knowledge.
• He rejected supernatural or spiritual phenomena as a basis for forming real ideas. Science, based on empirical knowledge, could be used to improve social and political conditions.
• Francis Bacon (1561-1626), an earlier philosopher, also emphasized the importance of scientific observation and experience for acquiring knowledge, warning against distorted knowledge derived from false impressions or idols.
• Bacon and Tracy both focused on the validity of knowledge obtained through scientific methods and cautioned against distorted knowledge.
• Today, the term ‘ideology’ refers to the set of ideas adopted by a group to motivate it towards achieving predetermined goals.
• The science of ideas is now often referred to as ‘sociology of knowledge’ (introduced by Karl Mannheim) or ‘critical theory’ (popularized by the Frankfurt School).
• The science of ideas aims to identify the causes of distortion in prevailing ideologies.
• Marx, along with Lukacs and Mannheim, contributed significantly to the systematic study of the causes of ideological distortion.

VIEWS OF MARX

• Karl Marx (1818-1883) explored the nature of ideology in works like German Ideology (1845-46) and A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859).
• According to Marx, ideology is a manifestation of ‘false consciousness’, a distorted view of reality.
• In A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, Marx observed that social production involves relations that are independent of individual will, corresponding to a specific stage of development of the material powers of production.
• The economic structure of society (relations of production) forms the real foundation on which rise legal and political superstructures, as well as corresponding forms of social consciousness.
• Marx stated that it is not the consciousness of men that determines their existence, but rather their social existence determines their consciousness.
• In the process of social development, material needs advance, but social consciousness lags behind, resulting in false consciousness reflected in ideology.
• The dominant class at any stage of development uses ideology to maintain its authority. For example, during the French Revolution (1789), the slogan “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity” was used to gain mass support, but it only served the interests of the new entrepreneurial class, not the common people.
• Marx and Engels (1820-1895) argued that ideology protects the interests of the dominant class. The bourgeoisie (capitalist class) needs ideology to stay in power.
• When the proletariat (working class) comes to power after a socialist revolution, it has no interest in maintaining its dominance. It aims to ‘wither away’ the state and transition to a classless society.
• V.I. Lenin (1870-1924), in What is to be Done? (1902), argued that ideology is not necessarily a distortion of truth but a neutral concept representing the political consciousness of different classes, including the proletariat.
• Lenin maintained that the class struggle would continue during the socialist phase, so the proletariat needs an ideology, scientific socialism, to guide them and prevent being overpowered by bourgeois ideology.