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Book No. – 52 (History)
Book Name – Modern World History (Norman Lowe)
What’s Inside the Chapter? (After Subscription)
1. SUMMARY OF EVENTS
2. ARAB UNITY AND INTERFERENCE FROM THE OUTSIDE WORLD
2.1. Arabs have several things in common
3. THE CREATION OF ISRAEL AND THE ARAB-ISRAELI WAR, 1948-9
3.1. Why did the creation of the state of Israel lead to war?
3.2. Who was to blame for the tragedy?
3.3. The war and its outcome
4. THE SUEZ WAR OF 1956
4.1. Who was to blame for the war?
4.2. Events in the war
4.3. The outcome of the war
5. THE SIX-DAY WAR OF 1967
6. THE YOM KIPPUR WAR OF 1973
7. CAMP DAVID AND THE EGYPTIAN- ISRAELI PEACE, 1978-9
8. PEACE BETWEEN ISRAEL AND THE PLO
9. CONFLICT IN THE LEBANON
10. THE IRAN IRAQ WAR, 1980-8
11. THE GULF WAR, 1990-1
12. ISRAELIS AND PALESTINIANS FIGHT AGAIN
12.1. The failure of the Oslo Accords
12.2. The problem of Jerusalem
12.3. Sharon and the intifada
12.4. The ‘road map’ for peace?
12.5. What brought about the Israeli change of attitude?
12.6. Difficult times ahead
12.7. Why did the peace process stall in this way?
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LANGUAGE
Conflict in the Middle East
Chapter – 11
Table of Contents
SUMMARY OF EVENTS
- The Middle East has been one of the world’s most troubled regions, especially since 1945, with almost continuous wars and civil wars.
- The region includes Egypt, Sudan, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iran, Turkey, Yemen, United Arab Emirates, and Oman.
- Most of these states, except Turkey and Iran, are populated by Arabs, though Iran contains many Arabs in the northern Persian Gulf area.
- The Middle East also includes Israel, established by the United Nations in 1948 in Palestine, which was home to the Palestinian Arabs.
- The creation of Israel in Palestine angered Arab opinion globally, as Arabs viewed it as a violation of Palestinian land.
- Arabs blamed Britain for supporting the Jewish state and especially blamed the USA for strongly backing the creation of Israel.
- Arab states refused to recognize Israel and vowed to destroy it, leading to four short wars (1948-9, 1956, 1967, 1973), though Israel survived all attacks.
- The Israel-Palestine conflict continued into the twenty-first century, with no permanent peace agreement.
- Two other major themes in Middle Eastern affairs included:
- The desire for political and economic unity among the Arab states.
- The desire to end foreign intervention in the region.
- The Middle East’s strategic position and rich oil resources attracted attention from both Western and Communistpowers.
- Conflicts in the region included:
- A civil war in Lebanon lasting from 1975 for nearly 15 years.
- A war between Iran and Iraq from 1980-1988.
- The First Gulf War (1990-1), where Iraqi troops invaded Kuwait and were driven out by an international coalition led by the USA.
- Interpretations of the Middle East situation vary by viewpoint:
- Many British politicians and journalists saw Colonel Nasser (Egyptian leader 1954-70) as a dangerous fanatic, comparable to Hitler.
- Many Arabs viewed Nasser as a hero, symbolizing the Arab people’s movement toward unity and freedom.
ARAB UNITY AND INTERFERENCE FROM THE OUTSIDE WORLD
Arabs have several things in common
- Arab language spoken by the majority, with most being Muslims (followers of Islam), except for Lebanon, where about half the population is Christian.
- Many Arabs wanted to see the destruction of Israel and the return of land to the Palestinian Arabs.
- Desire for further unity among Arab states, similar to the European Community.
- In 1931, an Islamic conference in Jerusalem declared that “the Arab lands are a complete and indivisible whole,” calling for independence and unity.
- Arab League founded in 1945, including Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Iraq, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen, later expanding to 20 states in 1980, but struggled with internal squabbles and achieved little politically.
- Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt emerged as a leader in the mid-1950s, boosting Arab unity after the 1956 Suez Crisis.
- In 1958, Syria and Egypt formed the United Arab Republic, with Nasser as president, but Syria withdrew in 1961 due to resentment over Nasser’s dominance.
- Arab states disagreed on too many points for real unity, including political differences between conservative monarchies like Jordan and Saudi Arabia and socialist-nationalist governments like Egypt and Syria.
- After Nasser’s death in 1970, Egypt’s President Sadat tried a loose union with Libya and Syria (Federation of Arab Republics), but it didn’t amount to much.
- Egypt’s peace treaty with Israel in 1979 led to Egypt’s expulsion from the Arab League.
- British and French involvement in the Middle East began long before, with Britain ruling Egypt from 1882 until 1922, but retaining influence after semi-independence.
- Following World War I, Britain and France took control of large parts of the Middle East from the defeated Ottoman Empire.
- The Middle East’s strategic position made it a crossroads between the West, Communist bloc, and Third Worldnations.
- Arab states had nationalist governments that resented Western influence and moved toward non-alignment to act independently of both East and West.
- Egypt’s Suez Canal was controlled by Britain until the 1952 revolution, when Nasser took power, challenging British influence.
- In Jordan, King Abdullah was assassinated in 1951 due to his pro-British stance, and his successor, King Hussein, ended treaties allowing British troops to remain in Jordan.
- In Iraq, the pro-British monarchy of King Faisal was overthrown in 1958, and Iraq joined the Baghdad Pact with Britain, Turkey, and others. After the Suez War, Iraq withdrew from the pact and became a republic.
- In Iran, the Shah resisted Soviet influence and signed a defense treaty with the USA in 1950 to maintain Westernsupport.
- Iran’s nationalist movement sought to reduce foreign influence, leading to the nationalization of Anglo-Iranian Oil in 1951.
- After the Suez War, the USA pressured Iran into a compromise, allowing British Petroleum a stake in Iranian oil, and the Shah used profits for modernization and land reforms.
- Resentment over the Shah’s ties to the USA and his wealth led to his exile in 1979, and the establishment of an Islamic republic under Ayatollah Khomeini.
- Khomeini’s goal was to maintain Iran’s non-alignment, similar to Nasser’s Egypt.
THE CREATION OF ISRAEL AND THE ARAB- ISRAELI WAR, 1948- 9
Why did the creation of the state of Israel lead to war?
- Origin of the problem traces back to AD 71, when most Jews were driven out of Palestine by the Romans, but small Jewish communities remained.
- Over the next 1700 years, there was a gradual return of Jews to Palestine, but their numbers were not significant enough to threaten the Arabs, who considered Palestine their homeland.
- In 1897, World Zionist Organization was founded in Basle, Switzerland, promoting the idea of a Jewish state in Palestine.
- Zionists believed Jews should have a national homeland in Palestine as a refuge from persecution in Russia, France, and Germany.
- Palestine was already inhabited by Arabs, who feared losing their land to the Jews.
- In 1917, Arthur Balfour, Britain’s foreign minister, supported the idea of a Jewish national home in Palestine.
- After 1919, Palestine became a British mandate, and Jewish immigration to Palestine increased, leading to Arab protests against it.
- British government (1922) stated no intention for Jews to occupy all of Palestine and promised not to interfere with the rights of Palestinian Arabs.
- Balfour’s declaration stated that nothing would be done to prejudice the civil and religious rights of non-Jewish communities in Palestine.
- British failure to manage relations between Jews and Arabs and to honor Balfour’s promise led to tensions.
- Nazi persecution of Jews after 1933 caused a surge in Jewish refugees, with Palestine’s Jewish population reaching about half by 1940.
- Arab protests and uprisings (starting in 1936) against British rule and Jewish immigration led to over 3000 Arab deaths after British suppression.
- In 1937, Peel Commission proposed dividing Palestine into two states (one Jewish, one Arab), but Arabs rejected the idea.
- In 1939, Britain offered an independent Arab state within 10 years and limited Jewish immigration to 10,000 a year, which Jews rejected.
- World War II worsened the situation, with Jewish refugees from Hitler’s Europe looking for refuge in Palestine.
- In 1945, the USA pressured Britain to allow 100,000 Jews into Palestine, but Britain refused to avoid offending the Arabs.
- After the war, Jews, determined to fight for their national home, began a terrorist campaign against both Arabs and British.
- One of the most notable incidents was the blowing up of the King David Hotel in Jerusalem, killing 91 people and injuring many more.
- Britain responded by arresting Jewish leaders and turning back ships like the Exodus, which carried Jewish refugees.
- Weakened by the war, Britain asked the United Nations to address the issue.
- In November 1947, the UN voted to divide Palestine, allocating roughly half for an independent Jewish state.
- Early in 1948, Britain decided to withdraw and let the UN implement its plan, despite ongoing fighting between Jewsand Arabs.
- In May 1948, David Ben Gurion declared the independence of Israel, which was immediately attacked by Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Iraq, and Lebanon.