I. LEGACY OF IMPERIALISM

IMPERIALISM AND COLONIALISM

• The conventional theory of sovereignty asserts the supreme legal authority of the state both internally and externally.
• Recent challenges to this theory include internal challenges from various groups and associations and external challenges from the international environment.
• The internal challenge is represented by the pluralist theory of sovereignty.
• The external challenge comes from globalization and the diminishing autonomy of nation-states.
• Imperialism, though historically prominent, continues in subtle forms.
• Originally, imperialism involved forming an empire by bringing multiple countries under one supreme authority.
• In modern times, imperialism is expressed through colonialism, which involves settling distant territories.
• Edward Said distinguished between imperialism as the practice and theory of dominating a distant territory and colonialism as the settlement of that territory.
• Modern imperialism arose from the expansion of trade and industry in Europe.
• Countries like Britain, France, Belgium, Netherlands, Spain, and Portugal established colonies in Africa, Asia, and America to exploit resources and boost their economies.
• Imperialists often claimed they were bringing civilization to uncivilized regions, masking their self-interest with moral justifications.
• J.A. Hobson defined imperialism as the search for ‘captive markets’ due to capitalist expansion.
• Hobson argued that imperialism resulted from capitalist societies’ wealth maldistribution, driving them to seek profit through external markets.
• V.I. Lenin viewed imperialism as an economic necessity for capitalist economies, driven by surplus capital seeking profitable outlets.
• Lenin identified three forces behind imperialist expansion: new investment opportunities, new markets, and new raw material sources.
• Captive markets are those where consumers have limited choices and suppliers can extract high profits.
• Lenin described the division of nations into oppressor and oppressed as the essence of imperialism.
• Although Lenin called for oppressed nations to unite and overthrow oppressors, his message was largely confined to the Russian Revolution.
• Post-World War II decolonization led to independence movements in colonial territories, with India gaining independence in 1947.

ADVENT OF NEO-COLONIALISM

• Exploitation of former colonies continued after their independence through new, subtle means.
• Former imperialist powers now exploit former colonies economically, leveraging cheap labor and raw materials.
• Developing countries, with low industrial development, provide raw materials and labor for developed countries.
• Price levels for products from developing countries are largely controlled by rich countries.
• Developing countries often lack capital and technical expertise, leading to labor-intensive industries with low profits.
• Developed countries utilize capital-intensive and technology-intensive industries with higher profits.
• International trade often disadvantages developing countries, leaving them with poverty, unemployment, and technological backwardness.
• Latin American countries like Chile, Brazil, and Panama and Asian countries like Taiwan, Malaysia, and the Philippines served as sources of cheap labor and raw materials for developed nations.
• Developed countries invest capital in developing countries through Multinational Corporations (MNCs), benefiting from cheap labor and raw materials.
• MNCs manufacture and market consumer goods in developing countries, earning significant profits for their home countries.
• Developing countries often provide cheap labor for the production of components in finished goods assembled elsewhere.
• MNCs may locate ‘dirty industries’ in developing countries due to less stringent environmental regulations, as seen in the Bhopal disaster and toxic waste dumping in Africa.
• Skilled professionals from developing countries, such as doctors and engineers, may migrate to developed countries, a phenomenon known as “brain drain.”
• Kwame Nkrumah coined the term ‘neo-colonialism’ in his 1965 essay, highlighting continued economic control by former colonial powers and superpowers.
• Neo-colonialism involves economic control through international monetary bodies, world market price fixing, multinational corporations, cartels, and cultural institutions.
• Neo-colonialism is seen as more insidious and difficult to detect than traditional colonialism.
• The legacy of imperialism persists, affecting the sovereignty of developing countries despite their formal political independence.