Core Concepts in Political Philosophy – CUET PG Philosophy – Notes

Theories of Justice

Justice is arguably the most central and contested concept in political philosophy. At its most basic, it concerns what is morally right and fair in the way society is structured and how its benefits and burdens are distributed among its members. It deals with questions of rights, deserts, and entitlements. We can begin by distinguishing between several types of justice.

• Distributive Justice: Concerns the fair allocation of resources, wealth, opportunities, and honors within a society. Who gets what, and on what basis?
• Procedural Justice: Focuses on the fairness of the processes and procedures used to make decisions and resolve disputes. The idea is that a fair process will lead to a just outcome, regardless of what that outcome is.
• Retributive Justice: Deals with the justification of punishment for wrongdoing. It seeks to determine what constitutes a fair and proportionate punishment for a crime.
• Corrective Justice: Concerns the righting of wrongs. When an injustice has occurred, corrective justice aims to restore the moral balance, often through compensation or restitution.

Ancient and Classical Theories of Justice

The philosophical inquiry into justice has deep roots, with foundational ideas laid by ancient Greek thinkers.

Plato’s Theory of Justice:

For Plato, as detailed in his seminal work The Republic, justice is not primarily about external actions or distribution, but about internal order and harmony. He saw justice as a form of specialization, both in the individual soul and in the state (the polis).

• Justice in the Soul: Plato proposed a tripartite theory of the soul, consisting of Reason (the rational part), Spirit (the courageous part), and Appetite (the desiring part). An individual is just when Reason, guided by wisdom, rules over the other two parts, with Spirit acting as its ally to control the Appetites. Justice is the health and harmony of the soul.
• Justice in the State: The ideal state mirrors the soul and is composed of three classes: the Guardian-Rulers (who embody reason), the Auxiliaries or soldiers (who embody spirit), and the Producers (farmers, artisans, who embody appetite). The state is just when each class performs its own function and does not interfere with the others. Rulers rule, soldiers defend, and producers provide. Justice, for Plato, is ‘minding one’s own business’ in this specialized sense. It is a principle of social order and functional specialization.

Aristotle’s Theory of Justice:

Aristotle, Plato’s student, offered a more practical and worldly analysis in his Nicomachean Ethics. He defined justice as a form of proportionality and fairness. He famously stated that justice means treating equals equally and unequals unequally, in proportion to their relevant differences.

• Distributive Justice: This deals with the distribution of divisible goods like honor, wealth, and public office. Aristotle argued that these should be distributed based on merit or worth (axia). For example, the best flutes should go to the best flute players. The relevant criterion for distribution depends on the good in question. This is a teleological approach; the purpose (telos) of the good determines its just distribution.
• Corrective (or Retributive) Justice: This concerns the restoration of equilibrium when a wrong has been committed. It operates in both voluntary transactions (like contracts) and involuntary ones (like theft or assault). The goal is to restore the ‘mean’ by taking from the offender and giving back to the victim, thus correcting the injustice. Unlike distributive justice, it does not consider the merit of the individuals, only the nature of the harm.