• Colonialism brought changes that altered the structure of Indian society.

• Industrialisation and urbanisation transformed people’s lives, shifting work from fields to factories and residence from villages to cities.

• Living and working arrangements changed along with culture, ways of life, norms, values, fashions, and body language.

• Social structure is understood as a continuing arrangement of persons in relationships defined or controlled by institutions.

• Culture refers to socially established norms or patterns of behaviour.

• Structural changes from colonialism are crucial for understanding cultural changes.

• The chapter examines two related developments resulting from colonial rule:

  • Deliberate efforts by 19th century social reformers and early 20th century nationalists to change social practices discriminating against women and lower castes.

  • Less deliberate but decisive cultural changes, broadly explained through four processes: sanskritisation, modernisation, secularisation, and westernisation.

• Sanskritisation predates colonial rule.

• Modernisation, secularisation, and westernisation are responses of Indians to the changes brought by colonialism.

Social Reform Movements in the 19th and early 20th Century

• Colonialism had a far-reaching impact on Indian society, prompting 19th century social reform movements.

• Social reform movements arose to address social evils such as sati, child marriage, ban on widow remarriage, and caste discrimination.

• Pre-colonial reform attempts existed in Buddhism, Bhakti, and Sufi movements, but 19th century reforms had a modern context combining western liberal ideas with traditional literature.

• Sociologist Satish Saberwal identifies three aspects of the modern framework of change in colonial India: modes of communication, forms of organisation, and nature of ideas.

• New technologies such as the printing press, telegraph, microphone, steamship, and railways facilitated quick movement of ideas and people.

• Social reformers exchanged ideas across regions: Keshav Chandra Sen visited Madras; Pandita Ramabai traveled widely; Christian missionaries reached Nagaland, Mizoram, Meghalaya.

• Modern social organisations included Brahmo Samaj (Bengal), Arya Samaj (Punjab), and All-India Muslim Ladies Conference (1914).

• Reformers used public media like newspapers and journals; translations of reformist writings across Indian languages were common.

• New ideas emerged about liberalism, freedom, homemaking, marriage, female roles, cultural pride, and education.

• Female education became central; Jotiba Phule opened the first school for women in Pune.

• Reformers debated modernity and tradition, e.g., Phule emphasized pre-Aryan age, Tilak emphasized Aryan period.

• Social reform movements had common themes but also differences:

  • Some focused on upper-caste, middle-class concerns.

  • Others focused on discriminated castes.

  • Differences existed over whether caste/gender oppression was due to decline of Hinduism or intrinsic to religion.

• Muslim social reformers debated polygamy and purdah, e.g., Jahanara Shah Nawas condemned polygamy as against the true spirit of the Quran.

• Debates occurred within communities and in the press; for example, Tahsib-e-Niswan supported the anti-polygamy resolution.

• Sati was opposed by Brahmo Samaj; orthodox Hindus in Bengal formed Dharma Sabha to petition against reformers’ interpretation of sacred texts.