SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

• The book introduces applied social psychology and its contributions to various domains.
• Describes social interactions in the U.S. Midwest in early fall 2010 to illustrate social psychological phenomena.
• A new family, Scott and Jen, moved across the street, leading to interactions with neighbors Ken and Kim.
• Initial positive interactions led to a developing friendship between the two couples.
• Shared interests, sports events, kayaking, garage sales, and parenting practices strengthened their bond.
• Ken and Kim decided to introduce Scott and Jen to other friends through a pizza and game night.
• Pleasant atmosphere soured when the conversation turned to the controversy over building a mosque near the World Trade Center.
• A heated debate ensued, with strong differences of opinion, particularly between Russ and Scott.
• Russ, with temper control problems, argued for moving the mosque, while Scott supported building it as planned.
• Tensions escalated with accusations of prejudice and racism, endangering the friendly gathering.
• Efforts to settle the argument failed, leading to an abrupt end to the party with unresolved conflicts.

Defining Social Psychology

• Social psychology seeks to understand how people think, feel, relate to, and influence one another.
• The series of interactions involving Ken, Kim, and friends is rich in social psychological phenomena.
• Examples of social psychological subject matter include thinking about others, feeling about others, relating to others, and influencing others.
• Instances in the interactions: Scott helping with Ken’s car, Ken’s perception of Scott as friendly, inviting each other into homes, positive feelings among couples, influencing each other’s activities, agreement on parenting practices, and organizing a party.
• Analysis of social interactions can reveal processes that comprise the subject matter of social psychology.
• Processes such as helping behavior, friendship formation, person perception, and interpersonal conflict are evident in the interactions.
• The examples can be related to broader areas of social psychological concern and investigation.

Social Psychology as a Science

• Social psychology, as a science, aims to understand how people think, feel, relate to, and influence one another.
• The scientific method involves research methods like correlational and experimental studies.
• Core values guiding scientific work include accuracy, objectivity, skepticism, open-mindedness, and ethics.
• Understanding in social psychology involves four goals: description, prediction, determining causality, and explanation.
• Description involves reporting details and nature of a phenomenon, prediction relates to systematically related factors, and determining causality involves establishing cause-and-effect relationships.
• Explanation aims to establish why a phenomenon or relationship occurs.
• Understanding in social psychology involves applying these goals to phenomena like intergroup attitudes.
• In intergroup attitudes, agents of socialization, media, group identity, and competition play roles.
• Research explores how attitudes are formed and maintained, focusing on thinking, feeling, relating, and influencing.
• Applied social psychology extends these principles to practical domains, applying knowledge to address real-world issues.

APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

• Sherif’s field research involved a third phase, focusing on reducing conflict between groups.
• An intervention strategy based on superordinate goals (cooperative goals appealing to both groups) was developed.
• Superordinate goals were introduced to decrease hostile interaction, leading to improved relations and cross-group friendships.
• The utility of superordinate goals in reducing conflict across various groups has been established.
• Sherif’s work exemplifies using social psychology for positive social change.
• Applied social psychology draws on theories, principles, and methods to address social problems and develop intervention strategies.
• It aims to contribute to understanding social and practical problems, improving functioning at individual, group, organizational, and societal levels.
• The unique aspect of applied social psychology is its emphasis on developing intervention strategies.
• The remainder of the chapter elaborates on applied social psychology’s meaning, focus, and its position within the broader field of social psychology.

Applied Social Psychology as a Science

• Applied social psychology is a science that employs the scientific method and core values.
• It shares the goals of description, prediction, determining causality, explanation, and adds a focus on control.
• Control in science means manipulating conditions to cause changes in a phenomenon.
• Applied social psychologists aim to effect positive change by understanding and addressing social issues.
• They may conduct research to understand the nature and causes of phenomena they want to address.
• Sherif’s research on competition’s negative impact on intergroup relations illustrates this approach.
• Applied social psychologists draw on accumulated knowledge, addressing social problems with solid scientific bases.
• Intervention strategies, like bullying reduction, are designed based on existing theory and knowledge.
• Responsibility extends to evaluating the consequences of interventions for both scientific and ethical reasons.
• The scientific obligation involves testing theoretical rationales and hypotheses underlying intervention strategies.
• The ethical obligation ensures that intended beneficiaries gain from interventions without unintended negative consequences.

The Role of Personal Values

• Core values of science, including objectivity, guide research, but personal values of scientists also influence decisions.
• Social psychologists’ personal values may shape their research focus, leading them to study specific social issues.
• In applied social psychology, dealing with interventions and control, personal values become more crucial.
• The determination of what constitutes a problem is subjective, influenced by personal values.
• Choice to intervene is often based on personal values, as seen in examples like affirmative action programs.
• Interventions developed by applied social psychologists are value-laden, reflecting their values in addressing problems.
• Values play a role in determining which social and practical problems to address, who should be targeted for change, and what constitutes change.
• The goal of control through intervention, aimed at improving the quality of life, may entail controversial social changes.
• Not all organizational interventions, such as job redesign, may meet the needs or wishes of all individuals.
• The application of personal values in interventions can lead to debates and differing opinions.

Historical Context of Applied Social Psychology

• Kurt Lewin, in the 1930s, laid the scientific foundation for applied social psychology.
• Lewin conducted research on practical issues like promoting healthier diets and studying supervisory styles’ effects on productivity.
• His emphasis was on linking psychological theory to practical application.
• Lewin’s legacy emphasized integrating theory, research, and practice in applied social psychology.
• The rise of Nazism and World War II led to a flurry of concern with applied issues among social psychologists in the 1930s and 1940s.
• Hitler’s influence on social psychology sparked a search for answers to social psychological questions about violence, prejudice, and genocide.
• Reich suggested that applied social psychology’s foundation was set by 1950, with successful demonstrations of scientific methods to address social problems.
• In the late 1940s and 1950s, a backlash occurred, moving social psychology away from applied concerns to a “pure science” emphasis on theory and laboratory experiments.
• The 1960s saw renewed interest in applied social psychology due to significant social and political events, forcing attention on pressing social issues.
• Criticisms of overreliance on laboratory experiments led to a call for more socially relevant psychology and a shift toward applied emphasis.
• The emergence of applied social psychology became evident in the 1970s, with the establishment of the Journal of Applied Social Psychology and the first doctoral program at Loyola University of Chicago.
• Other developments, including another journal (Basic and Applied Social Psychology) and the first textbook in applied social psychology, reinforced the identity of the field.
• Applied social psychology firmly established itself as a branch of social psychology, building on Lewin’s legacy.

A Problem Focus

• Applied social psychology is centered on addressing social problems, understanding crises, dysfunctions, and tensions in society.
• Philip Zimbardo emphasized psychology’s role in solving serious issues like AIDS, substance abuse, prejudice, crime, and juvenile delinquency.
• The field’s central focus is on changing attitudes, values, behaviors, and lifestyles to address societal problems effectively.
• Health-related problems often require behavioral (lifestyle) changes for solutions.
• AIDS, a global crisis, is a biological and medical problem with significant social implications.
• The decline in AIDS-related deaths and new infections is attributed to medical treatment, care, and behavior change.
• Prevention efforts, focusing on safer sexual behavior, contribute to the decline in new HIV infections.
• Hodges and colleagues’ research on college campuses addresses the need for safe-sex discussions to prevent AIDS.
• HIV/AIDS, at its core, is both a biological and social problem, emphasizing the need for social science-based solutions.
• Environmental issues like global warming and resource depletion, though rooted in physical science, require social science-based solutions due to human choices and behaviors.
• Psychology, through psychosocial research, can contribute to fostering environmentally sustainable behaviors.
• Applied social psychology extends beyond addressing social problems to practical problems, including team performance, decision making, and improving favorable situations.
• Personal uses of social psychology include individuals applying knowledge to improve their own lives, such as improving tips through positive communication.
• Personal applications can extend to everyday life, like resolving arguments at parties using social psychological theories and knowledge.

Social Influences on Behavior: The Power of the Situation

• Social psychology assumes that individuals’ behavior is significantly influenced by the social context or situation.
• Research examples highlight the powerful impact of social situations on behavior.
• Sherif’s (1966b) campers’ competition and Asch’s (1955) conformity studies demonstrate the influence of social situations.
• Bystander intervention studies show how the presence of others inhibits individuals from helping in emergencies.
• Milgram’s (1974) obedience research showcases the profound impact of the situation on individuals’ behavior.
• Various situational variables influenced participants’ compliance with increasing shock intensity.
• Replications and subsequent research indicate similar levels of obedience in various contexts.
• Individual differences, such as personality and attitudes, play a crucial role in how people respond to social situations.
• Lewin (1936) highlighted the interaction between personal and situational factors in understanding behavior.
• Social psychology recognizes the importance of both social and personal influences on behavior.
• The fundamental attribution error refers to the tendency to underestimate situational factors and focus on individual characteristics when explaining behavior.
• Observers often attribute behavior to personal traits rather than considering situational influences.
• Applied social psychology focuses on changing social environments to influence behavior positively.
• Intervention strategies, like superordinate goals and positive experiences, aim to induce changes in attitudes and behavior.
• Social influence attempts, conducted by social agents, are employed to enhance effective functioning.
• The field rests on the belief that systematic situational control (intervention strategies) can improve people’s functioning.

Levels of Analysis

• Social psychology emphasizes the impact of social influences on individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
• The social situation influencing an individual’s behavior can be broad, ranging from specific social stimuli to broader societal and cultural factors.
• Social situational determinants include interpersonal, group, organizational, community, and societal/cultural influences.
• Levels of analysis in social psychology correspond to these categories, explaining behavior by investigating the impact of individuals, groups, etc.
• Individual difference variables, such as personality traits, can also play a role in behavior.
• Combining personal and situational determinants provides a more comprehensive understanding of behavior.
• Riksheim and Chermak’s (1993) study on police behavior illustrates levels of analysis, categorizing determinants into immediate situational, organizational, community, and individual difference variables.
• Table 1.3 summarizes factors predicting police use of force across these levels of analysis.
• Understanding these determinants is crucial for designing effective intervention strategies.
• Intervention strategies may be directed at specific levels, such as organizational, to improve accountability and reduce the use of force.
• The choice of intervention level depends on the specific variables related to the behavior in question.

The Need for a Broad Approach

• Applied social psychology contributes valuable insights to various areas of life.
• Effectiveness in addressing problems is enhanced through a broad approach, involving multiple research methods.
• Collaboration with representatives from other disciplines is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of social and practical issues.
• Cross-disciplinary collaboration is particularly important in designing and evaluating intervention programs.
• Knowledge and expertise from diverse fields, including cognitive science, communication studies, sociology, and public health, are essential for addressing complex problems.
• Collaboration with professionals such as teachers, administrators, psychologists, and law enforcement can improve the design and implementation of interventions, such as anti-bullying programs.
• Acknowledging the role of individual difference variables, evolutionary perspectives, and cultural influences enriches the understanding of social behavior.
• The evolutionary perspective explores inherited tendencies shaping social behaviors.
• Culture, encompassing attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors shared by a group, plays a subtle yet powerful role in shaping social lives.
• Arnett (2008) argues for a more global perspective in psychology, considering conditions and problems beyond the scope of American society.
• “Culture Capsules” in the chapters draw attention to cultural variations in social psychological phenomena, promoting awareness of diverse perspectives.

Various Roles of Applied Social Psychologists

• Goal of social psychology: Develop and test theories of social behavior.
• Applied social psychology: Focus on understanding and solving social problems.
• Roles of applied social psychologists: Planner, organizer, evaluator, consultant, advocate, and activist.
• Fisher’s categories: Applied scientist and professional practitioner.
• Six major roles: Researcher, program designer, evaluation researcher, consultant, action researcher, advocate.
• Applied social psychologists draw on existing theory and research to develop intervention strategies.