Introduction

• The challenge before the leadership of the national movement was to integrate the divergent interests of various social groups in India to form a united movement against colonial rule.

• The Indian National Congress took several initiatives to address the issues affecting the lives of Dalits to gain their support in the fight against colonialism.

• Administrative, political, and economic changes in the wake of British rule in India and the colonial government’s efforts to protect the interests of Dalits fueled the latent discontent and resentment against the oppressive caste system.

• The Dalit intelligentsia, both at the regional and national levels, mobilized people from their social groups to assert their social and political rights.

• Liberation from internal oppression, rather than from British rule, was the central goal of the Dalit intelligentsia.

• The Indian National Congress recognized the importance of addressing the suffering of Dalits and advocated for the abolition of untouchability and the belief in social equality and justice.

• Nationalists supported the demands of Dalit leadership for democratic rights.

• Dalit efforts focused on creating an alternative ideological tradition in opposition to the Brahmanical tradition.

• The nationalist leadership attempted to address the problems faced by Dalits and worked towards ensuring their social and political rights.

• Eventually, Dalit leadership agreed to the Poona Pact, accepting a joint electorate in place of their demand for a separate electorate.

• The ideas of Gandhi and Ambedkar on the issues of liberation and empowerment of Dalits were key in shaping the discourse on their rights and participation in the national movement.

• There was a reservation of the Dalit intelligentsia’s support for the national movement due to concerns over its true commitment to their social and political rights.

Contextualising Caste Identity

• Dalits in India faced various forms of oppression due to the caste system, irrespective of the province they belonged to.

• At different points, people raised voices against exploitation in the name of caste, such as Buddhism, Bhakti movements, and other anti-caste egalitarian movements.

• From the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, organised movements by Dalits emerged in different provinces, challenging their social identity and claiming their rights in the decision-making process.

• The great revolt of 1857 shook the foundation of colonial rule, and the British government focused on preventing any discontent in society that could threaten the empire.

• The colonial authority used internal oppression within local society, particularly the caste hierarchy, to maintain control.

• The colonial government identified and legitimized caste divisions through official documentation and implemented specific measures for the benefit of socially oppressed groups.

• This gesture by the colonial government fueled Dalits’ aspirations to voice their grievances and challenge the authority of upper castes, with the support of the government.

• Western education and the values of liberty, equality, and justice provided by the colonial system gave birth to a new consciousness among Dalits.

• Nineteenth-century socio-religious reformers criticized social oppression due to the caste system but failed to present an actionable agenda that could win Dalit confidence.

• Early nationalists were primarily focused on the oppressive nature of imperialism and mobilizing for political liberation, often ignoring the concerns of Dalits.

• The aspirations of Dalits, independent of mainstream Indian polity, were expressed through the writings of Mahatma Jotiba Phule (1827–1890), who first raised the voice for Dalit liberation in modern India.

• Phule is considered the first ideologue of the anti-caste movement in modern India and reinterpreted Indian history and mythology to demolish the ideological foundation of Brahmanism.

• Phule argued that Brahmans (Aryans) had subdued the indigenous people, the Shudras, and called for the discarding of caste.

• In his book Gulamgiri (1873), Phule criticized the caste system and emphasized the need for social equality and unity of the oppressed classes.

• Phule viewed nationalism as another form of Brahmanism and argued that true national unity would only be achieved when all oppressed people, including Shudras, Ati-Shudras, tribals, and fishermen, were educated and integrated.

• Phule was critical of the reform initiatives by groups like Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and Arya Samaj, arguing that they ensured the continued domination of upper castes.

• Phule wanted to unite the bahujan samaj (the majority of Shudras and Ati-Shudras) and rejected the nationalism promoted by upper castes, which ignored internal social divisions.

• The colonial rule opened up educational and economic opportunities for the oppressed through reservation, which led to a new consciousness among Dalits.

• A small section of the oppressed took advantage of these opportunities and began to mobilize against their exploitation.

• In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, there was a rise in the writing of caste histories and the establishment of caste associations to assert new identities and protect the interests of their caste members.

• Government initiatives, such as administrative changes and the involvement of local people through reform acts, encouraged socially oppressed groups to demand political rights.

• Key Dalit leaders like Phule and Ambedkar in Maharashtra, E. V. Ramaswami Naicker and M. C. Rajah in Tamil Nadu, Narayana Guru in Kerala, Bhagyareddy Varma in Andhra, Mangu Ram in Punjab, Acchutanand in Uttar Pradesh, and others in Bengal challenged caste-based discrimination.

• These leaders were critics of the anti-colonial struggle led by upper caste elites who ignored internal oppression within Indian society.

• The new political awakening among Dalits reflected in their writings and activities was focused on emancipation and empowerment, which was not the primary concern of mainstream political leaders who focused on political liberation from colonial rule.