Distinctive Features of Indian Political Thought – O.P GAUBA

The Background

• The tradition of Indian political thought is older than Western political thought.

• Well-organized monarchies and republics existed in India before the Greek city-states developed.

• Indian sages and intellectuals had already reflected systematically on the purpose of the state and the art of government before major Greek philosophers appeared.

• Important Greek philosophers mentioned include Socrates (469–399 B.C.), Plato (427–347 B.C.), and Aristotle (384–322 B.C.).

• Indian thinkers had already developed political ideas prior to the emergence of these Greek philosophers.

• The tradition of Indian political thought experienced a revival in modern times.

• In the contemporary period, Indian political thinking is gradually becoming an integral part of global political thought.

• Indian political thought can broadly be divided into two streams:

  • Ancient Indian political thought

  • Modern Indian political thought

• Ancient Indian political thought was:

  • Rich in content

  • Developed mainly from indigenous talents

  • A response to Indian social conditions and culture

• Modern Indian political thought largely emerged from:

  • The Indian Renaissance of the early nineteenth century

  • The national movement of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries

• Modern Indian political thought attempted to integrate several influences:

  • The heritage of ancient Indian traditions

  • Ideas from the social reform movements of the late medieval period (14th–16th centuries)

  • The impact of Western political ideas

• Important Western ideas that influenced Indian thinkers included:

  • Scientific temper and progress

  • Nationalism and universalism

  • Freedom, equality and justice

• These Western ideas reached Indian intellectuals mainly through English education introduced during British colonial rule.

• The tradition of modern Indian political thought continued to develop after India’s independence in 1947.

• Rising social and political consciousness in India has produced many new ideas.

• These ideas are increasingly being expressed in various Indian languages and their literature.

• India is expected to play an important role in the future global intellectual activity and political thought.

Ancient Indian Political Thought

• Ancient Indian political thought is popularly known as Hindu political thought.

• This tradition developed over many centuries, beginning in the Vedic period (around second millennium B.C.) and continuing until the consolidation of Muslim rule in the fourteenth century A.D.

• The fundamental principles of this political thought originate from the concept of Rta (Cosmic Order).

• Rta represents the universal harmony underlying all objects and phenomena in the universe.

• It is different from man-made laws, which can be created or changed by human beings.

• Rta refers to the natural order of the cosmos, governing:

  • the material world

  • living beings

  • heavenly bodies

  • the primary elements such as earth, water, fire, wind, and space.

• Thus, Rta is an all-pervading order behind both natural phenomena and human actions.

• It resembles the Western concept of Natural Law, meaning a law inherent in nature itself.

• Rta can be realized by human beings through spiritual experience and intuition.

• Its realization requires identification with the Sublime or higher reality.

• Since human society is a part of the universe, it attempts to reflect the cosmic order in its own organization.

• The resulting social order is considered as sacred and unalterable, similar to the cosmic order.

• This social order is known as Dharma.

• Dharma represents what is right, just, and in conformity with truth.

• It directs individuals to accept their predetermined social status and roles.

• Dharma therefore establishes a system of duties that defines the social obligations of individuals.

• Following Dharma leads to the realization of virtue.

• Hindu philosophy recognized a set of important virtues known as Purusharthas, meaning the principal objectives of human life.

• The four Purusharthas are:

  1. Dharma – virtue achieved by performing duties according to sacred law.

  2. Artha – virtue related to wealth, material prosperity, and power.

  3. Kama – virtue related to the gratification of desires and sensual or aesthetic pleasures.

  4. Moksha – liberation or emancipation of the soul, attained through spiritual discipline and penance.

• The origin of Hindu political thought is closely connected with the pursuit of these Purusharthas.

• Unlike animals and natural objects, whose behavior is governed entirely by the cosmic order, humans possess reason and free will.

• Humans may be influenced by negative tendencies such as lust, anger, greed, delusion, and arrogance.

• These tendencies may cause individuals to deviate from Dharma and follow unjust paths.

• Such individuals may create insecurity, violence, theft, and oppression in society.

• To control such behavior, the Creator introduced the concept of Danda.

• Danda literally means a rod, symbolizing power and authority.

• It also signifies punishment, representing the power to punish wrongdoers.

• The person authorized to wield Danda is called Dandadhara (bearer of the rod).

• Dandadhara is another name for the King or Sovereign.

• According to ancient accounts, before the emergence of the king, society suffered from Maatsya Nyaya.

• Maatsya Nyaya means the law of the fish, similar to the law of the jungle.

• Under this condition:

  • a bigger fish swallows a smaller fish

  • the strong dominate the weak

  • there is no security or order in society.

• The King emerges to end this condition by enforcing Danda (authority and punishment).

• The science and practice of governance were known as Dandaniti.

• Dandaniti refers to the proper use of Danda in governance.

• The concept of Dandaniti appears in important texts such as Manusmriti, Mahabharata, and Kautilya’s Arthashastra.

• Kautilya identified four objectives of Dandaniti:

  1. Acquisition of the unacquired.

  2. Preservation of what has been acquired.

  3. Augmentation of preserved resources.

  4. Fair distribution of resources.

• Thus, Danda functions not only as a means of control and punishment, but also as an instrument for:

  • acquisition of wealth and power

  • protection of resources

  • expansion of prosperity

  • equitable distribution of resources.

• Effective implementation of these goals requires a strong and disciplined ruler.

• According to Kautilya, power is closely linked to material prosperity.

• Therefore, the pursuit of Artha becomes an important concern of political science.

• For this reason, the science of polity was called Arthashastra.

• Arthashastra refers to the science dealing with acquisition and control of wealth and power.

• The science of governance was also described as Rajadharma.

• Rajadharma refers to the duties and responsibilities of the ruler.

• The main objective of the science of polity was the establishment of an efficient and effective government.

• An efficient government was considered essential for enabling people to pursue the first three Purusharthas:

  • Dharma

  • Artha

  • Kama.

• Achievement of these three goals ultimately leads to the attainment of Moksha.

• Thus, the science of polity was regarded as the supreme discipline.

• This idea resembles Aristotle’s view that politics is the master science.

• In ancient Indian political thought, different traditions developed:

  • Manusmriti represents the Dharmashastra tradition.

  • Kautilya represents the Arthashastra tradition.

  • Mahabharata forms a link between the Dharmashastra and Arthashastra traditions.

• Apart from these traditions, the Buddhist tradition also contributed to Indian political thought.

• The Buddhist perspective emphasized the ethical foundations of individual conduct and political institutions.

• It explained the origin of the state based on a contractual basis of political authority.

• It also supported the elective nature of high political offices.

• Buddhism was the first tradition to introduce the concept of man-made law for the welfare of society.