• The concept of the state is central to political thought, which is defined as the study of the state’s structure, nature, and purpose.
• There is a long tradition of political thought, with several thinkers and schools developing ideas on the state from different perspectives.
• New ideas often criticize or modify old ones, and old and new political theories coexist, unlike natural sciences where old principles are replaced.
• None of the current political ideas claim absolute authority; their merits and demerits are constantly examined.
• Understanding diverse perspectives on the state provides valuable insights for dealing with public affairs.
• Key perspectives include:
  • Organic theory of the state
  • Mechanistic theory of the state
  • Liberal-individualist perspective
  • Welfare state perspective
  • Class perspective
  • Communitarian perspective
  • Post-colonial perspective
  • Gandhian perspective
  • Feminist perspective
  • Pluralist perspective
• Political theory offers provisional solutions or working formulas, but debate continues as new ideas emerge.

ORGANIC THEORY OF THE STATE

THE STATE AS A NATURAL INSTITUTION

• The organic theory of the state compares the state to a living organism and individuals to its organs.
• The existence and worth of individuals depend on the existence of the state, just as the organs depend on the organism.
• Different groups and classes in society are naturally fit to perform different functions, with some deemed superior.
• The state is considered a natural institution, essential for human existence as a civilized being.
• Ancient Greeks believed the state existed for the sake of life and the good life.
• Aristotle stated that man by nature is a ‘political animal’, and without the state, a person is either a beast or a god.
• Aristotle’s view: The state is prior to the individual and the family because the whole is prior to the part.
• A person isolated from society is not self-sufficient and is compared to a part in relation to the whole.
• The scientific revolution in the 17th century introduced the mechanistic theory of the state, challenging the organic view.
• By the 18th and 19th centuries, dissatisfaction with the mechanistic theory led to renewed interest in the organic theory of the state.
• Edmund Burke, a conservative thinker, argued that the state grew like a living organism and could not survive dissection.
• The state is greater and more complex than its parts, according to Burke.
• Nationalism in the 19th century portrayed the state as the embodiment of the nation, leading to the idealist theory.
• G.W.F. Hegel famously stated, “The state is the march of God on earth.”
• The development of evolutionary theory gave further momentum to comparing the state with biological phenomena.
• The biological school of political theory likened political institutions to the growth of living beings.
• The state’s development was seen as increasing differentiation of parts, like a living organism.
• Some theorists drew parallels between the state and natural man, describing parts like tissues, nutrition systems, circulation, organs (e.g., brain, nerves, heart, muscles, stomach, nose).
• Bluntschli compared the state to the masculine sex and the Church to the feminine sex.

THE STATE AS AN ETHICAL INSTITUTION

• The state is an instrument for good life, not just survival, and has a moralizing effect on human life.
• By performing duties and enjoying rights, individuals can achieve moral excellence within the state.
• The state is viewed as an ethical institution in the organic theory.
• The ethical foundation of the state in the organic theory rests on differentiation of functions.
• Aristotle believes in natural differences between individuals’ capabilities, asserting that some are destined for subjection, while others for rule.
• Aristotle views slavery as a natural institution, where masters have high virtue and slaves benefit by serving them.
• The institution of slavery is meant to secure the good life for both masters and slaves.
• The modern biological school of political theory contributed to the ethical view of the state.
• The biological school distinguishes between the organic view and mechanistic view of the state.
• The three essential characteristics of an organism are:
  • Intrinsic relationship between the parts and the whole; parts of an organism cannot exist apart from the whole.
  • Organic unity of parts; an organism grows from within and cannot simply replace parts like a machine.
  • An organism exists as an end-in-itself, while a machine is a means to an external end.
• The state is viewed as possessing these three characteristics, making it organic in nature.
• There is an intrinsic relation between man and the state, similar to the relationship between the parts and the whole in an organism.
• The state is seen as the source of good life for its citizens.
• Some theorists claimed the state represents the developed form of rational nature of man, calling it a ‘Moral Organism’, ‘Super-organism’, or ‘Organism of Organisms’.
• The state was sometimes attributed personality, being referred to as a ‘Real Person’ or a ‘Super Person’.
• Just as the organs of an organism have no independent interest apart from the organism, individuals have no interests separate from the state’s interests.
• According to organic theory, individuals can have rights within the state but not against the state.
• True freedom lies in obedience to the laws of the state.