Dualism in Geographic Studies – UGC NET – Notes

Introduction

• The word ‘dualism’ simply connotes the state of being divided (i.e. same subject exist in two different forms). For any domain of knowledge, therefore, it means two conceptually contrasted stances.
• Dualism finally leads to ‘dichotomy’ which means the bifurcation of any subject into branches of knowledge.
• Ever since its inception as a domain of knowledge, geography has been encountered several methodological issues that eventually gave birth to several dualisms and dichotomies in the subject. Such a sort of dualism was prevalent even in the classical or medieval periods of geographical history.
• Greek scholars like Aristotle, Herodotus, or Hecataeus emphasized on physical geography; Roman scholars like Strabo insisted on regional geography while Ptolemy stressed on mathematical geography; and, the Arab scholars like Al-Masudi, Al-Biruni, or AlIdrisi highlighted on the importance of the physical environment. However, such dualisms were very equivocal and abstruse.
• It was in the post-Renaissance period that geography witnessed the evident rise of dualism and since then, the subject has been branched off into several exclusive domains on methodological grounds. Over time the divisions have been further sub-divided into different sub-disciplines.

Dichotomy and Dualism

• Whenever any subject evolves as a discipline, there are debates and discussions that take place and various scholars present their views on different interpretations, approaches, etc
• In Geography, it was a debate of Physical geography or Human Geography, Methodologies to be adopted, etc
• Modern Geography has inherited right from the beginning, the concepts of dichotomy and dualism
• These terms are used interchangeably but they have different meaning and perspectives
• The dichotomy is the contrast or difference between two ideas, connoting division in the subject matter, while Dualism means Two aspects for a same subject, and Dualism is the concept of debate on a particular subject matter.
• Dualism is the hallmark of social philosophy and environmental thinking. It means two parallel ideas having the same goal but mutually distinctive
• Environmental Philosophy has been governed by dualistic thinking and dichotomous perception – as a result, several dualistic ideologies have emerged in the field of geographical learning.

Historical Perspective of Dichotomy and Dualism

• Right from the days of Varenius, there has been a tendency to divide geography into 2 types of Subject Matter.
• Varenius divided Geography into General Geography (e.g. Generalized study of Mountains, Plains, etc) and Special Geography (e.g. Study of Himalayas, Alps, Ganga, etc).
• Kant has given more stress on Special Geography and this is obvious when he divided geography into 5 branches such as –
  • Mathematical Geography
  • Moral Geography,
  • Political Geography,
  • Commercial Geography, and
  • Teleological Geography.
• Kant’s work was to promote Spatial Geography. Kant has also emphasized over systematic analysis and that was basically in General Geography.
• With the rise of Humboldt and Ritter, there was a clear cut division in the methodology of Geography.
• Humboldt had promoted Systematic Approach, while Ritter promoted Regional Approach.
• The dichotomy is a methodological dividing line in geography. Another dividing line was brought in Subject Matter.
• Ratzel’s view was completely different from the General Geography of Humboldt and Ritter.
• Humboldt was one step ahead by saying that Physical Geography was General Geography.
• It was discredited by Ratzel. Ratzel did not agree with the view that physical geography was general geography.
• He rather promoted a new branch of geography as Human Geography. With this, the division of Geography became imminent. So with the emergence of Ratzel, a new dichotomy was started in geography in the name of Physical and Human geography.
• With the rise of the French school of Geography, a new kind of dichotomy emerged in the subject that was known as Environmentalism vs. Possibilism. Environmentalism is also known as Determinism.
• French Geographers promoted Human Geography as General Geography as they considered man as an active agent i.e. Possibilism.
• American Geographers like Semple focussed on Environmentalism while French Geographers
  focussed on Possibilism.
• Vidal de la Blache (Father of French Geography) stated that Human Geography is General Geography.
• He outrightly rejected the concept of Humboldt that Physical Geography is General Geography.
• Humboldt divided Geography into 4 parts –
  • Geomorphology
  • Climatology
  • Oceanography, and
  • Biogeography
• While Blache did not make any divisions, he emphasised on 5 aspects of human beings –
  • Possibilism (rise of Human Beings)
  • Race, Tribes, and Ethnicity
  • Cultural landscape and region
  • Population Growth, Distribution, and Migration
  • Trade and Transport
• It was therefore obvious that Geography was divided into 3 sets of concepts of Dichotomy that were not a healthy trend for growing subjects like Geography. The 3 sets were –
  • Systematic vs Regional Geography
  • Physical vs Human Geography
  • Environmentalism vs Possibilism
• Consequently, many geographers emerged for the unitary approach. In geography, many geographers gave the argument in favor of minimization of the distance between the divided subjects following the unitary approach. This type of thinking started the dualistic debate in Geography that is known as Dualism.
• The concept of Dualism promoted discussion, arguments, and counter-arguments on the divided subject matters
• Geographers like OHK Spate, Dudley Stamp, and Griffith Taylor were strongly in favor of an integrated Geography. They welcomed debate but disagreed with the division of Geography. The emergence of Positivism in American Geography (1953-70) also promoted the Theoretical and Realistic Approach in Geography.
• Positivism refers to the use of Science & Physics Laws, theories, mathematical models in Geography e.g. Weber Model, Newton’s Gravity model in Population Geography, etc
• The Realistic approach was further strengthened after 1970 by Critical Revolution in Geography
• Consequently, present-day geography gives more emphasis to human aspects but this is not a favor to human geography, but simply due to need of present geography for its survival in the competition of applied subjects. Thus, the focus today is on Welfare Geography e.g. Border Area Development Program, Tribal Area Development Program, etc
• Geography is being made more relevant with a focus on Human Geography. Traditional Geography will be compelled to remain in isolation and therefore, the dividing line is meaningless. What is important is to know the present aspects of society from Geography.
• They expect Geography to play a central role in spatial analysis, This may be of any geographical item but the purpose must be to serve the society and to bring welfare and betterment to society.
• Due to this compulsion, present-day geography has brought some major deviations from traditional empirical methodology and subject matter of Geography, Consequently, many aspects of Physical geography are marginalized and many new concerns have emerged in Modern Human Geography.
• Although there have been some recognizable changes in the methodology and subject matter of geography but dualistic debate continues to remain as an important part of geographical exercises.
• The dichotomy is not of so much importance in present-day geography but dualism continues to have due recognition.

Types of Dichotomy/Dualism

1. General Geography versus Regional Geography
2. Physical Geography versus Human Geography
3. Determinism and Possibilism
4. Quantitative versus Behavioral Geography
5. Idiographic versus Nomothetic
6. Inductive Approach versus Deductive Approach
7. Modernism versus post-modernism

General Geography versus Regional Geography

• Bernhard Varen, aka Verenius introduced the dualism of general (Universal) geography and special (particular) geography, which led to the development of ‘systematic’ and ‘regional’ geography. Thus, Varenius was the first scholar who laid the foundation of the dichotomy of systematic vs. regional geography.

Systematic Geography:

• The approach of systematic geography isolates particular elements such as agriculture, industry or transport, and seeks to understand their spatial patterns and processes which have produced them.

Regional Geography:

• The approach of regional geography seeks to understand the unique character of an area as produced by the interaction of human activities and the physical environment.
• After WW-II, Systematic geography is essential analytical whereas regional geography is essentially synthetic and deals with unique situation and peculiarities. Systematic geography examines phenomenon at the whole world level like temperature, vegetation, soil, crops, rainfall, population, and so on. So, theorists like Koppen, Whittlesey, stump, candolle, penckall belonged to school of systematic geography.
• In contrast to this, if we study landforms, climate, soil, vegetation and superimposed these physical variables on cultural landscape, this would be a case of regional/physical geography.
• In opinion of Barry, the regional and general are not different approaches but extreme of continuum. Anuchin the soviet geographer, summarized controversy by saying that systematic geography cannot exist without regional geography and regional geography cannot be survived without systematic geography. In brief, dichotomy of systematic vs regional falls and they are complementary to each other.
• Physical Geography versus Human Geography Dichotomy of physical and human geography is as old as discipline of geography itself. The Greeks were probably the first who stated and started dichotomy of physical and human geography. Hecataeus gave more emphasis to physical geography. Similarly Eratosthenes and Ptolemy gave more importance to physical geography while Strabo and his disciples were in favour of human geography.
• The scholars who advocated the growth of physical geography are Hecateous, Kant, Humboldt, Darwin, Davis, penck and L.C. king, where as human geographers such as Herodotus, Ratzel, Miss semple, Huttington, Ritter, Mackinder, Harris, Burges, carl-o-saur and stamp related to study of human geography. Verinus whose Georgraphical Generalis published in 1650 was one of the 1st scholar to suggest that the universal and special laws can be framed in geography. The laws of physical geography can be universal, while the special laws can be framed about human society, is related a work of human geography.
• Verinus was the first geographer who divided the geography into general or universal and special or particular. In the opinion of Verinus, general geography deals with the formulation of universal laws which are common for the physical geography, while the spatial/particular geography providing space for regional geography which is more related to human geography as spatial geography can formulate laws/theories only for particular region as well as for human geography.
• To understand the depth of dichotomy, we may go into historical development of human geography. Ritter and Ratzel were among early geographers who consider man as an important agent to change existing landscape. Vidal de Lablache opined that main objective of geography to study PAYS(region). Pays are ideal units of study and he argued that regional geography is core of discipline of geography.
• In USA, human geography received an impetus from idea put forward by Mark Jefferson’s central place in the form of primate city concept.
• The dichotomy of physical and human geography was sharpened in later parts of 19th century and 1st half of 20th century. It was under this influence that department of physical geography and also another department by name human geography in western world and also in Asian countries like India.
• Still some of the geographers considered the main area of geography as to explain variations in physical attributes of earth surface like landform classi, geomorphology, oceanography, biogeography and climatology in which universal laws can be formulated. In opposition, a substantial majority of geographers both in developing and developed countries take geography as a social science but in general dichotomy of physical and human geography is artificial and in fact they are not in opposition but complimentary to each other.