Early Nationalist Responses: Ram Mohan Roy, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Dayananda Saraswati and Jotiba Phule
Chapter – 1
Table of Contents
- Two phases of Indian nationalism: First phase until the formation of the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885, and the second phase characterized by popular mobilization around anti-imperial ideologies.
- First phase dominated by reform zeal rather than a political agenda, bringing together individuals with similar ideologies.
- European Enlightenment ideas influenced this phase, with no condemnation of British colonialism; instead, colonialism was seen as altering archaic socio-political networks.
- The British administration, under the East India Company, was appreciated for social reforms, either guided by Enlightenment philosophy or as a strategy to infuse Indian society with certain values.
- The chapter focuses on the early nationalist response to British rule, exploring the uncritical endorsement by socially radical thinkers.
- Examines the changing nature of colonialism, impacting the conceptualization of British rule in India, which soon became associated with exploitation.
CONTOURS OF THE EARLY NATIONALIST RESPONSES
- Enlightenment philosophy, notably reflected in Macaulay’s 1832 minutes, was a significant influence on early Indian nationalists.
- Macaulay advocated English education and British jurisprudence to transform Indian society, assuming that British liberal values would contribute to social change.
- German philosophers like Schelling, Fichte, Kant, and Herder played a crucial role in influencing early nationalists, including Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay.
- Concepts of volk, community, and nation from German philosophy contributed to the idea of homogeneity amid foreign rule.
- French Revolution’s message of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity influenced Ram Mohan Roy, who aimed to combat archaic social mores dividing India.
- Traditional Indian thought, interpreted in the context of colonial rule, was a significant source, with contributions from William Jones, Max Muller, and Renaissance thinkers like Vivekananda.
- Renaissance thinkers emphasized the philosophy of action, karma, and service to humanity as ways to transform life in this world.
- Intellectual threads from these diverse sources shaped the nationalist ideas of early thinkers, considering the socio-economic and political context of British colonialism.
SOCIO-POLITICAL THOUGHT OF RAM MOHAN ROY
- Ram Mohan Roy, a prominent social thinker, played a historical role in abolishing sati among orthodox Brahmans.
- Founder of Brahmo Samaj, he incorporated the Islamic notion of ‘one god’ and emphasized social reform preceding political reform.
- Roy admired the British rule for its cultural superiority and historical role in combating feudal forces.
- Despite despising colonialism, he endorsed British rule, anticipating it would contribute to a transformed India with democratic institutions.
- Roy believed in transplanting British liberal values for the establishment of democratic governance in India.
- He advocated freedom of the press, submitting a petition with Dwarkanath Tagore to the Privy Council, considering it essential for democratic functioning.
- His support for British planters, despite their brutalities, was rationalized based on the economic strength contributing to the empire’s continuity.
- Roy’s historical role reflected the complexities of the period, where his ideas were conditioned by the socio-political context of incipient colonialism.
- Identifying him solely as a pro-imperial thinker would be historically inaccurate, as his ideas were nuanced reflections of the period’s dilemmas and aspirations.
BANKIM AS A NATIONALIST THINKER
- Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay was a systematic expounder of nationalism in India, contributing by conceptualizing it in indigenous terms.
- Opposing Muslim rule, he drew upon the Bhagavad Gita, reinterpreting it in light of Western knowledge to create a nationalist alternative to British rule.
- Bankim’s primary concern was national solidarity, emphasizing the need for a change in attitude toward a collective Hindu society.
- He advocated the conviction that what is good for every Hindu is good for the nation, fostering single-minded devotion to the nation’s interests.
- Bankim believed that contact with the British revealed the weaknesses of Hindu society in terms of cultural diversity, hindering national solidarity.
- The notion of anushilan, or practice, was integral to Bankim’s ideology, defined as a system of culture rooted in bhakti (devotion) combining knowledge and duty.
- Anushilan implied duty performed selflessly for the community’s benefit, contributing to the defense of the nation.
- Bankim emphasized the importance of dharma (religion) in national solidarity, aiming to create conditions for a separate identity for the Hindu community.
- While advocating emulating the West in material culture, Bankim recognized the East’s superiority in spiritual culture, promoting a synthesis of both strengths in the construction of national identity.
SOCIO-POLITICAL IDEAS OF DAYANANDA SARASWATI
- Dayananda Saraswati, founder of Arya Samaj, shared concerns with Ram Mohan Roy about the divisive nature of Hindu society contributing to British subjugation.
- Unlike Roy, Dayananda was not influenced by European culture and thought, maintaining an indigenous approach to his nationalist response.
- Dayananda drew inspiration from the Vedas, in contrast to those influenced by Western ideas, presenting a unique perspective in the early nationalist movement.
- His work “Satyarth Prakash” emphasized two key ideas: the active role of God in creation and the assessment of individual actions in the name of God, linking human behavior to divine justice.
- Dayananda’s redefinition of God reflected the Old Testament God of Justice, distinct from the New Testament God of Love, influencing later thinkers like Aurobindo.
- The second important idea highlighted the divisive nature of Hindu society as a major factor in British victory, attributing it to internal failings.
- Dayananda criticized Hindu practices like child marriage and carnal gratification, arguing that adherence to the Vedas would restore the distinctiveness of Hindus as a race.
- The Arya Samaj, under Dayananda’s leadership, refrained from direct political campaigns against the British, focusing instead on social reform rooted in Hindu scriptures.
- Dayananda explored the Vedas to instill a sense of identity among Hindus and purify Hinduism from present corruptions, emphasizing the need to strengthen the moral foundation of society.
- Critical of the caste system distortion, Dayananda advocated merit-based social hierarchies, aligning with the original principles of the Vedic society.
- Dayananda’s non-political approach allowed the Arya Samaj to avoid government attention in the strong colonial rule context, fulfilling its historical role and leaving behind a Hindu-tradition-centric nationalist response.
JOTIBA PHULE: UNIQUE SOCIO-POLITICAL IDEAS
- Jotiba Phule, born in 1827, shared similarities with Dayananda in desiring a social organization based on individual merits rather than birth.
- His play “Tritiya Ratna” (The Third Eye) critiqued Brahman domination, highlighting the oppressive nature of Hindu religion that imposed ideological hegemony on shudras and contributed to their material impoverishment.
- Phule explored the possibility of conversion as a practical device to escape exploitative Hindu religion, as suggested in the play.
- Emphasizing the role of education, particularly English literacy, Phule argued that Brahmins sustained their influence by acquiring new skills under British rule, making them indispensable to the administration.
- Phule conveyed a principal message focused on creating a society free from Brahmanic exploitation, viewing British rule as a boon for challenging caste hegemony.
- While critical of Brahmanical discourses, Phule distanced himself from a wholesale rejection of Hinduism, targeting values and ideas sustaining the prevalent Hindu system.
- He challenged the Varna system, rejecting the god-given status and arguing it was a Brahmanical distortion to perpetuate domination.
- Phule opposed the notion of avatara as an agency of change and criticized Brahmanical gods and beliefs, presenting an alternative discourse of history.
- Literacy and English education were powerful tools for Phule to eradicate Brahmanical hegemony and promote gender equality.
- Phule appreciated the British rule for laying the foundation of a modern egalitarian society, despite reservations about their response to people’s needs.
- The Satyashodhak Samaj, founded in 1873, implemented Phule’s ideas into practice, actively involved in girls’ formal education, widow remarriage, and social debates.
- Phule provided a powerful social critique of prevalent Brahmanical practices and values, anticipating many socio-political issues later raised by Gandhi.
ASSESSMENT OF THE EARLY NATIONALIST RESPONSES
- The early nationalist response, including figures like Ram Mohan, Bankim, Dayananda, and Phule, was motivated by a shared concern for massive reform in Hindu society.
- Ram Mohan, influenced by British Enlightenment, saw foreign rule as a step to radically transform Hindu society by injecting Enlightenment ideas.
- Bankim, drawing on the Gita, used anushilan dharma to galvanize a moribund nation and privileged the spiritual resources of Hindus in instilling identity.
- Dayananda distinguished himself by depending exclusively on the Vedas, and Phule was influenced by Western Enlightenment in articulating reform.
- There’s an implicit assumption attributing British triumph to the divisive nature of Hindu society, emphasizing the need for reform.
- Early nationalists created an imagined space where the East was seen as superior to the West, departing from past British liberalism.
- The conceptualization of the nation by these thinkers had a narrow basis, avoiding reference to Muslims and drawing exclusively on Hindu traditional tracts.
- The idea of consolidating Hindus as a race acted decisively in their responses, driven by the mission to revamp and revitalize Hindus.
- Despite differing views on Muslim rule, these thinkers were historically conditioned, and their response was not meant to be partisan but a product of circumstances.
- Their response was not political; Dayananda eschewed politics for the Arya Samaj, Ram Mohan focused on eradicating evil practices, and Phule challenged Brahmanical hegemony.
- Avoidance of a clear political role was likely strategically conditioned to prevent government intervention, allowing them to pursue their ideological mission.
- Despite their non-political stance, their ideas inspired the Extremists and provided intellectual resources to Gandhi and his followers.
- The early nationalist response forms an integral part of nationalist thought, textured differently in various historical circumstances based on the central theme in the nationalist vision.