Evolution of Indian Administration: With Special Reference to British Influences

Evolution of Indian Administration: With Special Reference to British Influences

Chapter – 1

Harshit Sharma

Alumnus (BHU)

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INTRODUCTION

Indian Administration has its origins in the tribal system, which later evolved into a monarchical system.
Knowledge of ancient Indian administration is derived from religious and political treatises.
In the early Vedic period, many tribes elected their chiefs, who handled the tribe’s responsibilities and administration.
The chief protected the tribe but had no revenue system or control over land.
The tribe’s affairs were managed through Sabha (assembly of elders) and Samiti (assembly of people).
Wars were common due to the lack of a formal revenue system, and the booty was shared among the tribes.

BRITISH INFLUENCES ON INDIAN ADMINISTRATION

THE EAST INDIA COMPANY (1600 TO 1772)

The present Indian administrative structure is a legacy of British rule in India.
British India left a lasting imprint on the administrative system.
The British administration helped India transition to a parliamentary democracy.
British rule in India began on 31 December, 1600, with the granting of a monopoly over trade to the British Crown.
The East India Company was formed to buy Indian goods and sell them in Europe.
Between 1600 and 1765, the Company primarily operated as a trading corporation.
The Company had two controlling authorities: Board of Control and Court of Directors.
The Board of Control was the superior body, appointed by the British Parliament.
The Court of Directors consisted of members nominated by the proprietors of the Company.
The creation of a civil service was a notable contribution by the British.
The civil service was divided into two categories:
- Covenanted Civil Service: Comprised only of Englishmen.
- Uncovenanted Civil Service: Included Indians, Parsis, Englishmen, and Portuguese.
The Covenanted Civil Service involved civil servants who entered into a covenant to serve the Company and provided a security amount of ? 500.
The Covenanted Civil Service was further divided into categories like judicial, political, revenue, and mercantile.
The Uncovenanted Civil Service was not bound by any covenant and employed individuals temporarily for odd jobs.
The personnel policies in the different presidencies (Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras) varied.

Prominent Achievements of The Company Rule (1773 To 1857)

The Regulating Act of 1773 is considered the starting point of Indian government formation and is the first statute recognizing the East India Company for functions beyond trade.
It applied mainly to the presidency of Bengal and introduced the position of Governor-General and a Council to control the presidencies of Madras and Bombay.
The Governor-General in Council had authority over matters of war and peace.
In 1833, the Governor-General of Bengal became the Governor-General of India, and in 1853, a separate Lieutenant-Governor was appointed for Bengal.
Warren Hastings was appointed Governor-General under the Regulating Act of 1773 and oversaw the transformation of the civil service.
Under Hastings, the civil service shifted from being commercial adventurers to a public service.
The Company transitioned from trading to government functions, focusing on revenue and law and order, marking the start of a police state.
The modern secretariat had its origins in the office of factory writers in Madras and Bengal.
The Secretary to the Council of the Governor-General was assisted by junior servants.
Lord Cornwallis perfected the administrative structure created by Hastings and introduced reforms for the civil service.
Cornwallis’s reforms included a liberal system of remuneration, reducing corruption and patronage, and ensuring covenanted civil servants held important offices.
The Cornwallis Code defined authority, created a system of appeals, and founded the civil service as it exists today.
Customs were separated from the revenue department during Cornwallis’s regime.
District Officers had greater powers than the Collector due to lack of central control and transport or communication.
Boards for administration were established in Calcutta and Madras during Hastings and Cornwallis’s time, including the Board of Trade, Board of Revenue, Military Board, and Medical Board.
In 1785, the Company government was run by Governor-General-in-Council through the four boards, which continued until the Company’s rule ended.
A weakness in Cornwallis’s regime was his effort to exclude Indians from administrative roles and lack of improvements in the pay or prospects of subordinate posts.
The period of Wellesley (1799-1805) marked an important epoch, with Wellesley focusing on training civil servants.
Wellesley established Fort William College in 1800 in Calcutta for the training of civil servants, realizing the increasing complexity of the Company’s functions.

The Period of 1800 to 1854

The period 1800-1833 saw an expansion of the secretariat to handle increased administrative work.
Several new departments were created, such as the Persian Department, Ecclesiastical Department, Clothing Board, and Board of Customs.
Some departments were merged or abolished during this period.
In 1829, the Board of Revenue at Calcutta was renamed Sadar Board of Revenue, and in 1833, another such board was set up at Allahabad.
The Charter Act of 1833 renewed the Company’s charter for twenty years and made several provisions:
- The Presidency of Bengal was divided into two parts: Bengal and Agra.
- The Governor-General of Bengal became the Governor-General of India, consolidating civil and military powers.
- The Company’s commercial activities were officially ended.
The Charter Act of 1853 abolished the system of patronage and introduced open competition for recruitment.
Entrance examinations for the civil service were to be held in London by a Civil Service Commission set up in 1854.
The Macaulay Committee marked the beginning of administrative reforms in India, with a focus on competitive recruitment and training.
The British government began setting up commissions, committees, and study teams to address special administrative areas.
Reports of these commissions were published, and they were appointed under the British monarch’s seal.
The Macaulay Committee Report of 1854 is considered the foundation for competitive recruitment and training in the Indian civil service.

THE ACT OF 1858, 1861, 1892

The Indian Revolution of 1857 set the stage for the Act of 1858.
The Act of 1858 abolished the Court of Directors and the Board of Control.
The government, territories, and revenues of India were transferred from the Company to the Crown.
An additional Principal Secretary of State for India was appointed, and the Council of India was created.
The Governor-General remained all-powerful, and the conditions of service for public services were now determined by the Secretary of State.
The Act did not bring drastic changes to the government system.
Several issues arose during British rule in India:
- Decline of indigenous self-government, like the village panchayat.
- Grouping of provinces without considering factors like racial, cultural, or linguistic affinities.
- Growth in public taxation and military expenditure.
- Lack of focus on nation-building activities, such as education, public health, irrigation, and cooperation.
- Neglect of indigenous industry and agriculture, leading to extreme poverty, epidemics, and famines.
- Excessive curbs on political activities, with restrictions on press freedom, speech, and movement.
The bureaucracy was highly centralized, and while the Act of 1858 showed some awareness of the issue, changes were slow.
In 1859, Canning introduced the ‘portfolio’ system, which divided government work into several branches, each assigned to different members of the Governor-General’s Council.
The Indian Act of 1861 initiated decentralization, restoring some powers to the Legislative Councils of Bombay and Madras.
New councils were set up in other provinces, but most legislation required the consent of the Governor-General.
The Indian Act of 1892 expanded the functions of the Legislative Councils.
While the system of direct elections was not approved, the preliminary process began, with the government consulting bodies like municipalities and landholders before nominating members.
The government had the power to reject recommendations made by these bodies.

MORLEY MINTO REFORMS 1909

The Indian Councils Act (1909), also known as the Morley-Minto Reforms, extended the Act of 1892.
It increased the size of the Legislative Councils.
The Provincial Councils could now have a majority of non-officials.
The Act introduced the system of communal representation for Muslims, which contributed to communal disharmony and eventually led to the partition of India.
The Decentralization Commission, appointed in 1909, recommended the revival and growth of panchayats.
The Commission also suggested reducing government control over local bodies.

GOVERNMENT OF INDIAN ACT 1919

The Government of India Act (1919) aimed to establish popular control in local government, make provincial governments responsible to popular representatives, and relax British Parliamentary and Secretary of State control.
Local self-government became a provisional and transferred subject under a responsible Indian minister.
In 1923, the British government appointed the Royal Commission on Superior Civil Services under Lord Lee of Farham.
The Commission recommended the establishment of a Public Service Commission, and in 1926, the Federal Public Service Commission was set up, consisting of a chairman and four members.
The Federal Public Service Commission began functioning on 1 October 1926, mainly handling recruitment, though it was consulted on disciplinary matters as well.
The Commission’s role in the pre-independence era was purely advisory.
The experiment with provincial autonomy (1937-1939) was unsuccessful, as Congress ministers resigned in protest against the British decision to involve India in World War II.
The Governor-General had overriding powers over provincial administration.
In 1941, three new departments were created: Information and Broadcasting, Civil Defence, and Indians Overseas.
The Indians Overseas Department was renamed the Department of Commonwealth in April 1944 and merged into the Department of External Affairs and Commonwealth Relations in June 1947.
The Department of Food was created in 1942, and the Department of Civil Supplies merged into the Industries and Civil Supplies Department in 1943.
The Department of Planning was established in 1944 but abolished in July 1946.
After World War II, in 1945, the Department of Education, Health, and Lands was split into three separate departments: Education, Health, and Agriculture.
After Independence, all departments were redesignated as Ministries on 29 August 1947.

FEATURES OF THE BRITISH RULE

INDIAN CIVIL SERVICE

The most important legacy of British rule in India was the creation of the Indian Civil Service (ICS).
The ICS represented the visible presence of the British in India and was essential for wielding authority.
The members of the ICS constituted the essence of British power in India.
The Aitcheson Commission (1886-87) retained the twofold division of covenanted and uncovenanted services.
In 1892, the two services were renamed the Indian Civil Service and the Provincial Civil Service.
The British introduced the idea of competitive examinations to be conducted by an independent agency.
The Federal Public Service Commission was created in 1926 to handle civil servant recruitment.
Another key contribution of the British was the institutionalization of a training system for civil servants.
The efforts to establish a training system began in 1880 with the setting up of Fort William College in Calcutta.
The training system evolved over time and aimed to prepare personnel for both empire service and service to the people.
Training in Indian languages and law was emphasized to make civil servants more competent.
Languages were emphasized to help officials connect with the common people.
Local laws were stressed to enhance the competence of civil servants.

Staffing the Secretariat

The idea of a central pool for recruiting manpower reflects the practical genius of the British.
Before 1920, each individual department recruited its own staff independently.
In 1920, the Government of India made upper division clerks of the secretariat part of an Imperial Secretariat Service and appointed a Central Staff Selection Board to oversee recruitment.
The staffing pattern of the Central Secretariat changed following recommendations from the Tottencham Committee (1945-46).
In 1950, the Imperial Secretariat Service was replaced by the Central Secretariat Service.
Features of the secretariat system included:
- Heavy reliance on precedents
- Inability of lower-grade officials to share responsibility
- Excessive record-keeping with little output
These practices and legacies continue to influence the system today.

Pay, Promotions and Transfers

The British devised a well-developed pay structure for civil servants.
In 1918, posts were divided into ‘superior’ and ‘inferior’ categories.
The promotion system introduced by the British brought social mobility, challenging the traditional Indian caste system where a person born into a low caste remained low for life.
Promotion allowed for movement up the social ladder, which was a significant change in Indian society.
Spangenberg highlighted a flaw in the transfer policy of the British government.
The frequent transfers of officials drained the vitality of the administration.
The transfer policy negatively impacted district administration, particularly by nullifying the advantage of oriental loyalty.
It was common to see three to four sub-divisional officers changing in a single year.

Financial Administration

During the Company’s rule, revenue was obtained from two sources: land revenue and taxes on trade and personal property.
Expenditure was classified into two heads:
- Security or defence
- Social and development services (e.g., education, public health).
The most important administrative innovation was the introduction of the budget system through the Financial Resolution of 7th April 1860.
Under this system, financial estimates for each year were arranged, considered, and sanctioned by the Government of India before the year commenced.
The budget contained anticipated income and proposed expenditure for the empire.
A central Revenue Department was created in Calcutta to integrate and coordinate the activities of all the revenue authorities.
An Imperial Audit Department was set up to ensure that departments adhered to the provisions of the budget.
Another significant contribution was the introduction of government paper currency in 1860.
The Bank of Bengal became the agent for printing, issuing, and circulating paper currency.
Paper notes from Rs. 1 to Rs. 1,000 were issued.

Financial Accountability

A full-fledged and systematic mechanism of control was established in 1919 when the Comptroller & Auditor General (C&AG) was made responsible to the Central Legislature.
In 1926, the C&AG was granted the power to inspect any government office of account.
In 1922, a Central Public Accounts Committee was created, consisting of both elected and official members, with the Finance Members as its ex-officio chairman.
The Committee considered the Auditor General’s reports on reappropriation amounts.
Through these two bodies, the Indian Legislature was empowered to exercise control over the administration of public finance.
A Standing Finance Committee was also created, with the Finance Members as its chairman, and had duties similar to a public Estimates Committee.
Public Accounts Committees were set up in each Governor’s province.
Under the Central Legislature Act of 1934, the Government of India established the Reserve Bank of India, which began functioning on 1st April 1935.
The foundation of contemporary police administration in India was laid during the British Period, particularly after the enactment of the Indian Police Act of 1861, which created an organized system of constabulary.
The Indian Penal Code (IPC) of 1860, the Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC) of 1861, and the Indian Evidence Act constituted the legal framework of criminal justice administration.
These legal instruments have become important components of the legacy of the British rule in India.

Administration of Justice

The administrative spirit of the British rule was evident in judicial administration.
In the earlier stages of the Company’s rule, when its covenanted servants had little knowledge of the local laws, old practices were retained.
Warren Hastings combined revenue and judicial functions in the office of the Collector, reflecting the power of the Amalguzar under the Mughals, who had authority over both revenue collection and trying certain cases.
A drastic change was introduced by Lord Cornwallis, based on the principle that the judiciary should be separated from the executive.
The Cornwallis Code of 1793 took away the judicial power of the Collector and laid the foundation of an independent judiciary.
The code established a three-tier system of European judges:
- Zilla and city courts at the bottom,
- Provincial Court of Appeal in the middle,
- Sadar Diwani and Nizamat Adalat at the top.
The creation of the intermediate tier of provincial courts was aimed at reducing the workload of the Governor-General.
Until Bentinck’s time, Indians were not entrusted with any posts in the judicial system.
Holt Mackenzie, Bentinck’s successor, recommended that primary jurisdiction in most cases be given to Indians.
Mackenzie also removed the intermediate tier of courts, as it slowed down the flow of justice.
He enlarged the jurisdiction of the district court to make justice more locally available.

Local Self-Government

The British retained some aspects of the ancient village system but introduced changes in local administration.
The Government of India Resolution, 1864, admitted that people of India were capable of managing their own local affairs.
Statutory recognition was granted to panchayats as petty courts in Bombay and Madras.
In 1870, Mayo’s Government included panchayats in managing funds for education, public works, etc.
Lord Ripon, called the father of local self-government, introduced reforms in 1882 through a new policy.
- Resolution of 18th May, 1882 recommended:
  - Extension of the elective element in rule bodies,
  - Reduction in the size of the official element,
  - Elected non-official chairmen for rural bodies,
  - Financial decentralization.
The Decentralization Commission of 1990 examined local government and suggested a three-tier system:
1. Village panchayat or union boards,
2. Tehsil or Sub-district boards,
3. District boards.
The Commission recommended reducing government control over local bodies.
Municipal corporations were set up in Madras (1688), Calcutta, and Bombay (1726).
The Mountague-Chelmsford Report of 1918 recommended giving local bodies greater powers with minimal outside control.
Through the Act of 1919, local self-government became a provincial and transferred subject under a responsible Indian minister.
Laws were passed in each province to promote the growth of village panchayats, increasing the strength of elected members.
The Act of 1935 introduced provincial autonomy, but due to the Second World War, no further progress was made before independence.

The Secretariat System

Until 1843, the Central Secretariat was in Calcutta, controlled by Bengal civilians.
The Secretariat had a Secretary-General, three assistants, and clerical staff.
Three departments were set up:
1. Military Department (military affairs),
2. Foreign Department (foreign and diplomatic relations),
3. Home Department (justice, education, legislation),
4. Financial Department (financial operations, provision of ways and means).
In 1855, a separate Department of Public Works was created.
Portfolio system introduced in 1858: A Council member was assigned responsibility for one or more departments, issuing orders on behalf of the Governor-General-in-Council.
This practice continued post-independence.
In 1871, matters of revenue and agriculture were moved from the Home Department to a separate Department of Revenue, Agriculture, and Commerce.
Several changes and mergers occurred in departmental structures over time.
In 1905, during Lord Curzon’s time, control of the railway system was handed to the Railway Board, later designated as the Railway Department in 1905.
In 1921, medical administration was transferred from the Home to the Education Department, which was renamed the Department of Education and Health.
In the same year, a Department of Industries was created.
Due to the Second World War, in 1937, the Foreign and Political Department split into:
1. External Affairs Department,
2. Political Department.
In 1941, three new departments were created:
1. Information and Broadcasting,
2. Civil Defence,
3. Indian Overseas (renamed Commonwealth Relations Department in 1944).

Bureaucratic Leadership

Personalities of individual administrators had a significant influence on policy formulation and decision-making in India.
Prominent administrators who shaped the modern administrative system included:
- Thomas Munro
- R. M. Bird
- James Thomson
- Sir George Campbell
- Sir Andrew Fraser
- Sir Harcourt Butler
- Sir Malcolm Hailey
These civilians represented imperialism and were key figures in guiding administrative changes in India.
They were bureaucratic leaders who were deeply involved in policy formulation and decision-making.
The Macaulay Report emphasized civil servants possessing qualities like industry, self-denial, and perseverance.
The Royal Commission on Decentralization (1907-09) criticized the conduct of junior ICS officers, pointing out barriers between the government and the public.
Syed Ali Imam, an Executive Councillor, mentioned the lack of sympathy from district officials towards Indians, citing instances of discourtesy.
The Commission recommended that young officials be specially trained in Indian etiquette under selected Collectors.

Secretariat Reforms

The British consciousness towards reforms is reflected in the setting up of several commissions and committees.
The Secretariat Procedure Committee (1919) recommended a pyramidal organization for each department.
The proposed structure included a secretary at the top and at least two deputy secretaries.
The Committee suggested the abolition of the post of under-secretaries, except in the Finance Department.
The aim of these changes was to reduce administrative delays and expedite official business.