Rise of Magadha

Introduction

• Magadha has attracted the attention of historians for the last two hundred years due to its significance as the nucleus of political power under the Mauryan dynasty.

• The Magadhan kingdom began to grow during the 6th century BCE, with rapid acceleration under the Nandas and Mauryas.

• Ashokan inscriptions indicate that a major part of the Indian subcontinent, excluding the eastern and southern extremities, had come under Magadhan suzerainty.

• Despite the rise of Magadha, the expansion of the empire was such that the composition and texture of the empire was highly diverse, making direct political control difficult.

• This diversity in the empire may explain why Ashoka introduced his policy of Dhamma to resolve the inherent social tensions in the empire.

Sources

• The events and traditions of the middle Ganga plains, where Magadha was located, are well preserved in early Buddhist and Jaina literature.

• Buddhist texts like the Tripitikas and the Jatakas, and early Jaina texts like the Acharanga Sutra and Sutrakritanga are considered important sources, though compiled after the 6th century BCE.

• For political events, Buddhist and Jaina traditions offer more authentic and direct accounts compared to the later Brahmanical texts like the Puranas, which cover royal dynasties up to the Gupta period.

• Later Buddhist chronicles like the Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa, compiled in Sri Lanka, are significant for events related to Ashoka Maurya’s reign but need cautious use as they were developed in the context of Buddhism’s spread outside India.

• Foreign sources such as Greek and Latin classical writings, especially the accounts of travelers like Megasthenes, who visited the court of Chandragupta Maurya, provide valuable, near-contemporary information.

• Megasthenes is known through later Greek writings by Strabo, Diodorus, and Arrian. Information on Achaemenian (Persian) rule and the invasion of Alexander comes from Persian inscriptions and Herodotus.

• The Arthashastra of Kautilya, discovered in 1905, is an important source for the Mauryan period, though its dating is controversial. Many scholars believe it was originally written by Kautilya, the minister of Chandragupta, and later edited by others.

• Inscriptions and coins are crucial sources for understanding the early history of India, especially during the Mauryan period.

• The punch-marked coins of the Mauryan period, which do not bear king names but feature uniform symbols, likely indicate issuance by a central authority.

• The inscriptions of Ashoka are extremely important, with fourteen major rock edicts, seven minor rock edicts, and seven pillar edicts located in prominent places, serving as physical testimony to the extent of the Magadhan empire at the end of Ashoka’s reign.

• Archaeology has provided significant data on the material cultures of the Ganga valley. The Northern Black Polished Ware marks the emergence of cities and towns, and the Mauryan period saw further changes in material life.

• Archaeological evidence shows that elements of material culture spread outside the Ganga valley and became associated with Mauryan rule.

Reasons for the Rise of Magadha

• Magadha was one of the sixteen mahajanapadas, located primarily in the middle Ganga valley, with surrounding kingdoms including Anga (east), the Vajji Confederacy (north), Kashi (west), and Kosala (further west).

• It corresponds to modern districts of Patna, Gaya, Nalanda, and parts of Shahabad in Bihar.

• Geographically, Magadha had large tracts of alluvial soil, which was easily cleared with iron implements, making it highly fertile and suitable for the cultivation of various paddy varieties. This led to surplus production, which augmented taxes.

• Magadha had access to a large supply of elephants, which gave it an edge in warfare. Nandas reportedly maintained 6000 elephants, which could traverse marshy lands, unlike horses or chariots.

• The unorthodox societal setup of Magadha made it more receptive to expansionist policies. It had a mixture of Vedic and non-Vedic people with differing outlooks than orthodox Vedic societies.

• The first capital of Magadha, Rajagriha (also called Girivraja), was strategically located south of the river, surrounded by five hills, making it impregnable. It also had proximity to iron-encrusted outcrops and access to copper and forests in the southern Bihar region.

• The capital later shifted to Pataliputra (originally Pataligramma), located at the confluence of several rivers like the Ganga, Gandak, Son, and Poon Pun. The rivers served as communication routes for the army and as a natural water fort (jaladurga), making its position difficult to penetrate.

• Pataliputra enabled Magadha to command the Uttarapatha (northern route), vital for trade and communication along the Himalayan foothills.

• The river system also facilitated heavy transport and strengthened Magadha’s connectivity with different regions.

• Magadha had natural advantages over contemporaneous kingdoms like Avanti, Kosala, and the Vajji Confederacy, which were powerful but located in different directions.

• Iron mining areas near Magadha and Avanti were crucial for producing weapons and expanding the agrarian economy, generating a taxable surplus that supported territorial expansion.

• Avanti became a competitor of Magadha, defeating the Vatsas of Kaushambi and planning to invade Magadha. However, Ajatshatru fortified Rajgir, and the invasion was eventually thwarted.

• Timber was abundant in Magadha, and Megasthenes described its wooden walls and houses. Archaeological remains of wooden palisades from the 6th century BCE have been found south of Patna.

• Timber was also used to manufacture boats, allowing the Magadhan army to advance east and west.

Political History of Pre-Mauryan Magadha

• Under Bimbisara, a contemporary of the Buddha (6th – 5th century BCE), Magadha emerged as a dominant force in the middle Ganga plains.

• Bimbisara belonged to the Haryanka dynasty and is considered the first significant ruler of Magadha.

• He realized the importance of establishing dynastic relations through marriage with the royal house of Kosala, acquiring a village in Kashi as dowry.

• He also had cordial relations with the king of Gandhara and ruled over 80,000 villages.

• Bimbisara was imprisoned by his son Ajatashatru (Prince Kunika) around 492 BCE and starved to death.

• Despite internal troubles, the succession of Ajatashatru did not affect the fortunes of Magadha.

• Ajatashatru pursued a more aggressive expansionist policy, gaining control over Kashi and breaking relations with Kosala by attacking King Prasenajit.

• He targeted the Vajji confederacy, a ganasangha to the north, aiming to gain access to river trade.

• The war against the Vajjis lasted 16 years, and Ajatashatru used deception to defeat them with the help of his minister Vassakara.

• Magadha achieved superior military technology, using mahashilakantaka (large catapult for hurling rocks) and rathamusala (chariot fitted with a mace).

• Ajatashatru’s invasion of Avanti, a strong rival, did not materialize, but he succeeded in adding Kashi and Vaishali to Magadha, making it the most powerful kingdom in the Ganga valley.

• Ajatashatru ruled from 492 BCE to 460 BCE and was succeeded by Udayin (460-444 BCE).

• Under Udayin, Magadha extended north to the Himalayas and south to the Chhota Nagpur hills, and he built a fort at the confluence of the Ganga and Son rivers.

• Despite Magadha’s vast territories, Udayin and his successors struggled to effectively rule, and the last king was overthrown by the people.

• Shishunaga, a viceroy at Benaras, ascended the throne in 413 BCE but ruled for a short period before the Nanda dynasty took over under the usurper Mahapadma Nanda.

• The Nandas are considered the first empire-builders of India, with the invasion of Alexander marking the beginning of the historic period in India.

• Mahapadma Nanda is described in later Purana writings as the exterminator of all kshatriyas, overthrowing contemporary ruling houses.

• Greek sources describe the might of the Nanda empire, citing their vast army: 20,000 cavalry, 200,000 infantry, 2,000 chariots, and 3,000 elephants.

• The Nandas may have had contact with the Deccan and south India, with some inscriptions suggesting control over parts of Kalinga (modern Odisha).

• The Nandas consolidated the Magadhan empire, collecting taxes regularly through appointed officials and strengthening the agrarian economy through canals and irrigation projects.

• By the end of Mahapadma Nanda’s reign, the first phase of expansion and consolidation was completed, laying the groundwork for the future Mauryan empire.

• The north-west was still under various small chiefdoms at the time of Alexander’s invasion. There was no encounter between Magadha and the Greek conqueror.

• The Nanda dynasty came to an end around 321 BCE, after nine Nanda kings. Their unpopularity allowed Chandragupta Maurya to rise to power.

• Despite dynastic changes, Magadha remained the foremost kingdom in the Ganga valley, with advantages such as its geographical location, access to iron mines, and control over land and river trade routes.