Causes

• The growth of political consciousness in India was not due to a few agitators but was a revival of a historical tradition and the liberation of the soul of the people.

• Many factors contributed to the growth of political consciousness, one of the most important being British imperialism, which unified the country and allowed people to think as one nation.

• Before British rule, the South of India was often separate from the rest, but British imperialism made the entire population think as one. Prof. Moon stated that British imperialism brought political unity to India despite many discordant elements in society.

• The establishment of British supremacy also brought Indians into contact with European countries, which influenced them greatly, especially in terms of nationalism and liberalism.

• The example of Germany and Italy becoming independent raised the question of why India could not be independent, sparking the spirit to fight for liberation.

• The ideas of liberty, rights, and independence spread among Indians, influenced by Western liberalism.

• Lord Ronaldshay described how the new wine of Western learning revolutionized the mindset of young Indians, making them embrace liberty and nationalism.

• According to Coupland, Indians learned from British history that British Liberalism supported nations fighting for freedom, and they saw parliamentary responsible government as a model to adopt in India.

• Improvements in transport and communication also accelerated the nationalist movement, allowing leaders to spread their message across the country and engage with the people more effectively.

• The Indian Press and literature, both in English and vernacular, played a significant role in arousing national consciousness, with newspapers like “Indian Mirror,” “Bombay Samachar,” “The Hindu Patriot,” “The Amrit Bazar Patrika,” and “The Hindu” shaping public opinion.

• Poets and writers such as Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Rabindra Nath Tagore, R. C. Dutt, and Din Bandhu Mitra contributed to national awareness. Bankim’s “Anand Math” became known as the “Bible of modern Bengali patriotism”.

• The writings of Indian patriots sparked a revolution in the minds of the people, which was vital for the growth of Indian nationalism.

• Scholars and reformers like Maxmuller, Monier Williams, Ranade, and R. G. Bhandarkar helped reveal the grandeur of India’s ancient literature and fostered pride in India’s past.

• Religious and social reformers such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, and Vivekanand inspired a sense of national pride by presenting a glorious picture of India’s past and encouraging the restoration of its former greatness.

• Swami Dayanand Saraswati was credited with a great nationalizing influence, and Mrs. Annie Besant recognized him as the person who proclaimed “India for the Indians”.

• Vivekanand taught young India to have self-confidence and trust in its own strength, and his devotion to India was central to his philosophy.

• Mrs. Annie Besant also contributed significantly to Indian nationalism through her writings and life’s work.

• There was widespread discontentment in India due to multiple causes, including economic hardships and unemployment faced by the masses and middle classes.

• Indians felt the economic exploitation of their country, with British officials draining resources and the economic system being tailored to benefit England rather than India.

• Blunt criticized the Indian finance system, stating that the Finance Minister of India prioritized Great Britain’s interests over India’s.

• Sir Henry Cotton condemned the economic exploitation and the resulting miseries faced by the Indian population.

• The attitude of Europeans towards Indians was arrogant, with Europeans viewing them as inferior, often calling them “half Gorilla, half Negro”, and belittling their religious practices.

• Europeans regarded Indians as “helots of the land”, treating them as mere laborers, which strained relations between Indians and Europeans.

• Indians were not allowed in the upper-class railway compartments, and even ruling chiefs were humiliated by being forced to unlace boots and shampoo the legs of Europeans.

• Assaults by Europeans on Indians were frequent, and European juries often allowed the perpetrators to escape punishment, creating a “judicial scandal”.

• Garrat mentioned that murders and brutalities by Europeans against Indians went unpunished or were lightly penalized, continuing well into the sixties.

• Sir Theodore Morrison noted that murder of natives by Englishmen was a frequent occurrence, highlighting the disregard for Indian lives.

• The Europeans held certain maxims about Indians, such as their life being worth less than a European’s and that fear was the only thing an oriental understood.

• The British justification for their rule was that they had lost lives and spent millions to control India and believed they deserved compensation in the form of ruling India.

• Edward Thompson stated that the Mutiny remained a painful memory for many Indians, a symbol of unresolved historical trauma.

• Munro in his 1817 minute described how British rule provided protection and security to Indians but also debased their national character, excluding them from meaningful participation in governance.

• Indians were unable to attain significant positions in the military or civil government, leading to a lack of energy and national pride among the population.

• The conquest of India by the British led to the debasement of the Indian people, as they were completely excluded from any share in the government.

• Munro argued that no other conquerors treated the natives with such scorn, labeling them as untrustworthy and incapable of holding important roles.

• Exclusion from positions of trust was a key aspect of British rule in India, which Munro felt was ungenerous and impolitic, leading to the demoralization of the Indian population.

• The free-trade policy of the Government of India hindered the country’s development, as it favored British economic interests over India’s needs.

• Lala Murlidhar (1891) criticized the free trade system, calling it a sham, stating that there could be no fair trade between impoverished India and capitalist England.

• D. E. Wacha observed that the economic condition of Indians deteriorated under British rule, with 40 million Indians having only one meal a day due to the tribute extracted by England from the starving peasantry.

• Sir William Hunter (1880) highlighted that 40 million Indians suffered from insufficient food, and Lord Salisbury admitted in 1875 that British rule was bleeding India white.

• W. T. Thornton (1880) commented that the annual tribute to England drained India’s resources, weakening its industrial position.

• The Indian economy experienced lopsided development: while Indian handicrafts and industry suffered, agriculture was promoted to supply raw materials for British industries, making India dependent on England.

• The free trade policy also benefited British manufacturers at the expense of India’s economic interests.

• The public debt of India significantly increased, with the Crown assuming a debt of 70 million from the East India Company after 1858, and the debt doubled between 1858 and 1876.

• Out of the additional debt, only 24 million were spent on railways and irrigation; however, the construction of railways was inefficient, with inflated costs.

• W. N. Massey criticized how enormous sums were wasted on railway construction, with no incentive for contractors to economize, as they were guaranteed a 5% return on investment.

• L.H. Jenks outlined how many of the expenses contributing to India’s public debt were unrelated to India, including costs from the Mutiny, wars in China and Abyssinia, expenses in London, and even costs of the Sultan of Turkey’s visit.

• Indian treasury was charged for various unrelated British governmental expenses, including British diplomatic costs, military expenses, and the cost of telegraph lines to India.

• These economic burdens resulted in great misery for Indians, causing widespread resentment and unrest.

• Frequent famines occurred in India, with 24 famines in the second half of the 19th century, resulting in the deaths of 28 million Indians.

• During the famines, the export of foodgrains from India to Britain worsened the situation, further increasing bitterness among the population.

• Mr. Blunt, a British journalist, observed in 1882 that when Lord Lytton left India, the country was on the brink of revolution.

• Before the Mutiny of 1857, some Englishmen genuinely believed in and worked for the welfare of the people of India.

• The outbreak of the Mutiny resulted in widespread bloodshed on both sides, with Europeans seeking revenge on helpless and innocent Indians.

• The policy of oppression and repression after the Mutiny contributed significantly to discontent in the country.

• Indians were completely excluded from legislatures and key administrative positions.

• According to Zacharias, the blight of distrust began to affect England’s relationship with India, as the British feared further sedition after the Mutiny.

• After the Mutiny, the old sympathy with India turned to repugnance, and the British began to view things through a distinctly English perspective.

• Garrat stated that English forces killed prisoners without trial in what was seen as barbaric by Indians.

• Thousands of civilians were massacred, and General Neil ordered the destruction of entire villages, with all men slaughtered, and indiscriminate burning of villages took place wherever the British forces moved.

• The English language played a crucial role in the growth of nationalism in India, acting as the lingua franca for the intelligentsia.

• Without a common medium like English, it would have been difficult for people from different regions like Madrasis, Bengalees, and Punjabees to discuss the common problems of the country.

• Tagore observed that the study of English literature introduced Indians to concepts of humanity, justice, and freedom, inspiring them to fight for their own freedom.

• Through English literature, Indians were influenced by authors like Wordsworth and Shelley, who advocated for liberty and the overthrow of tyranny, creating a sense of shared values.

• Indians believed that their rebellion against foreign rule would receive sympathy from the West, particularly from England.

• According to Sardar Panikkar, the spread of Hindu reforms across India was largely due to the English language as the medium of education, which unified the country.

• Had education been conducted in Indian languages, the reform movement would have been limited to individual provinces, and Hinduism would have fragmented along linguistic lines, leading to disunity.

• The reformation of Hinduism would still have occurred but without a cohesive, all-India approach, potentially replicating Europe’s pattern of mutually hostile units.

• The introduction of English education by Macaulay prevented this fragmentation and helped unify the Hindu community across India.

• The period from 1876 to 1884 is considered the seed time of Indian nationalism.

• Lord Lytton‘s policies, especially his actions of omission and commission, played a significant role in accelerating the nationalist movement.

• In 1877, Lytton held the Delhi Durbar while the people of South India were suffering from a severe famine, showing his callousness towards the people’s suffering.

• The phrase “Nero was fiddling while Rome was burning” was used to describe Lytton’s indifference.

• The Second Afghan War drained the Indian treasury, leading to widespread criticism of Lytton.

• To suppress Indian public opinion, Lytton passed the Vernacular Press Act in 1878, which was condemned by people from all walks of life.

• Sir Erskine Perry criticized the Vernacular Press Act as “retrograde and ill-conceived, harmful to India’s future progress,” and it was called the Gagging Act.

• Lytton also passed the Arms Act in 1878, which discriminated between Indians and Europeans: Europeans could freely possess arms, while Indians needed a license.

• Surendra Nath Banerjee described the Arms Act as a “badge of racial inferiority”, which insulted the self-respect of Indians.

• Lytton’s decision to remove the import duty on cotton manufactures was seen as an attempt to help British manufacturers, causing resentment among Indians.

• Lord Ripon attempted to address some of the grievances of the Indians, but the Ilbert Bill controversy overshadowed his efforts.

• The Europeans’ behavior during the controversy caused Indians to lose their trust in them, making it clear that they could not expect justice or fairplay when it conflicted with European interests.

• Surendra Nath Banerjee remarked that “No self-respecting Indian could sit idle under the fierce light of that revelation,” highlighting the call to patriotic duty.

• The Ilbert Bill controversy led to the formation of the Indian National Conference in December 1883 under the leadership of Surendra Nath Banerjee, which was the precursor to the Indian National Congress founded in 1885.

• Other organizations like the British India Association of Bengal, Bombay Presidency Association, Madras Native Association, and Poona Sarvajanak Sabha also played a role in the nationalist movement.