Higher Education System – UGC NET Paper I – Notes

As vedic education became highly ritualistic, there was shift towards Buddhism with focus on Middle Way and Anatta (no-self) and Jainism with focus on extreme non-violence and asceticism. There were social and economic changes, with focus on ethics and morality. There was need to address the issues of broader population. Further, they were supported by royal patronage from Emperor Ashoka. We owe a lot to Indians who taught us how to count without which no worthwhile scientific discovery could have been made.

~ Albert Einstein

Introduction to Ancient Education

• There were ancient systems of education in Egypt, China, Greece, Mesopotamia and other parts of the world. China was popular for Confucian system of teachings. There were many common points and distinctions. Indian Ancient system made significant contributions in fields like mathematics (concept of zero, decimal system), medicine (Ayurveda), astronomy, and linguistics (Sanskrit grammar). There was focus on holistic development, ethics and morality. We may try to have a grasp of certain facts.
• Ancient Indian education, starting around 5000 years ago with the Vedas, significantly shaped Indian culture. This system was more than just basic learning; it promoted deep understanding and spiritual insight.
• Vedic education was essentially secular and included extensive teachings in science and arts. It was holistic, integrating the development of the mind, body, and spirit.
• Over time, Buddhism and Jainism emerged in India, leading to the establishment of globally renowned universities like Nalanda and Vikramshila. This era marked India as JagatGuru (जगतगुरु- Global Mentor), drawing students from various regions to its centers of learning. There is mention of Jagat Guru in National Education Policy – 2020 as well.
• In ancient India, diverse ideas and learning methods coexisted, with people contemplating them in different ways. This education system was equitable, treating all knowledge areas with equal importance.

Evolution of Ancient Education

The term Veda (वेद) originates from Vid, meaning knowledge. Vedas symbolize boundless knowledge and are regarded as limitless. Ancient Indian education was shaped by religious, political, and economic influences. In ancient Indian philosophy, dharma (धर्म) had a wide-ranging meaning, encompassing ideals, practices, and behaviours that define the righteous path. In Unit 6, we touched upon many facts.

Vedic Period (1500-500 BCE):

• Vedas and Upanishads (वेद और उपनिषद्): During this period, the Vedas, ancient India’s oldest religious and philosophical texts, were composed. The Upanishads, explaining the Vedas’ philosophical ideas, also emerged.
• Epic Period (महाकाव्य काल): This era witnessed the creation of epic texts like the Ramayana and Mahabharata, which includes the Bhagavad Gita. It was also marked by the rise of Jainism and Buddhism and the codification of Manu Smriti.
• Sutra Period (सूत्र काल): This period saw the development of significant texts like Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras, Gautama’s Nyaya, and the Mimamsa Shastras.
• Rise of Mahayana Buddhism (महायान बौद्ध धर्म का उदय): Nagarjuna (नागार्जुन) played a pivotal role in this era, marking the rise of Mahayana Buddhism.
• Scholastic Period (शास्त्रीय काल): This period’s key contributions include Shankaracharya’s (शंकराचार्य) work and the development of the Vedanta philosophy.
• Post-900 CE: The rise of Vedantic schools such as Visishtadvaita and Dvaita (विशिष्टाद्वैत और द्वैत) characterized this period.

Two Dimensions of Knowledge: There are following two aspects of knowledge:

Para Vidya (परा विद्या): Para Vidya in education is about attaining higher knowledge and spiritual wisdom. Its supreme goal is to help individuals realize their union with the Absolute God and recognize the divine essence within themselves.

Apara Vidya (अपरा विद्या): Apara Vidya, on the other hand, focuses on lower or secular knowledge. It encompasses the practical and worldly aspects of life, often referred to as materialistic elements that contribute to a comfortable existence. This includes various secular sciences and disciplines.

Objectives of Education in Ancient India

The ultimate objectives were self-realization and achieving moksha (मोक्ष salvation of life) so that one gets freedom from the cycle of death and rebirth. For that, gaining deep knowledge is essential.

1. Gaining Knowledge: Students aimed to gain a wide range of knowledge.

2. Understanding Duties: Education included learning about social and religious responsibilities.

3. Building Character: A key goal was to develop good character traits.

4. Self-Realization and Moksha (मोक्ष): The ultimate aim was self-realization and achieving moksha, meaning freedom (liberation) from the cycle of birth and rebirth in this world.

5. Personal Development: Education focused on developing the individual’s personality, considering both inner qualities and external behaviours.

6. Inner Progression: It was seen as a journey towards self-fulfillment.

7. Teaching Techniques: Teachers used specific methods to help students understand concepts.

8. Mental Training: Education involved training the mind to enhance creativity.

9. Mind Over Subject: More emphasis was placed on developing the mind than on the subjects studied.

10. Societal Responsibility: Students learned to devote themselves to the greater good of humanity.

11. Chitta Vritti Nirodh (चित्त वृत्ति निरोध): This concept involves controlling mental activities related to the material world.

12. Importance of Action (karma-कर्म): The doctrine of action was significant.

13. Vocational Training: There were 64 different arts and professions taught. Training was hands-on under a master, often with free boarding.

14. Rta (ऋत) in Education: This term meant natural and moral order in the Vedic context.

15. Curriculum Design: The design of what to teach was crucial.

16. Oral Learning: Initially, knowledge was passed down orally. Later, texts and a broader range of subjects were included.

17. Practical World Knowledge: Students learned about the world and society, aiming to experience the Supreme Truth themselves.

18. Renunciation of Materialism: Acquiring education often meant giving up material wealth and comforts.

19. Gurukulas and Ashrams (गुरुकुल और आश्रम): Students stayed in these educational institutions, often in tough conditions near rivers or lakes.

20. Application of Knowledge: The aim was to use skills and knowledge for personal growth and societal benefit.

Education Though Modes of Transmission

In Indian scriptures, texts are broadly classified into two categories: Shruti and Smriti. This classification is based on the method of their transmission and the nature of their composition.

1. Shruti (श्रुति): This can be simplified as revealed texts, that is what is being divinely heard.

• • The Four Vedas (Rig, Yajur, Sama, and Atharva) and the 108 Upanishads fall under the Shruti category.
  • Shruti texts are regarded as the core scriptures of vedantic system, they hold the highest authority. They are believed to be the timeless and eternal knowledge revealed to ancient sages (Rishis).

2. Smriti (स्मृति): This may be termed as remembered texts. These texts are considered to be authored by sages based on their understanding and interpretation of Shruti.

• • This category includes a wide range of texts such as the Bhagavad Gita, the 18 Puranas, Kautilya’s Arthashastra, Vatsyayana’s Kama Sutra, various Tantras, and many more.
  • They provide more practical and detailed elaborations on the philosophical principles found in Shruti. They include laws, rituals, ethical codes, and narratives that guide the social and religious practices of Vedic system.

Education Process

In ancient India, the education process was well-structured and consisted of several important stages

1. Vidyarambha (विद्यारम्भ): The education began at the age of 5. This stage marked the initiation of formal learning.

2. Upanayana (उपनयन):

• • This was the formal education ceremony, also known as the sacred thread ceremony.
  • In the Guru’s home, the learner experienced a second birth, becoming a ‘Dvija’ (द्विज), which means ‘twice-born’.
  • The first birth is from the biological parents, and the second is from the spiritual master and Vedic knowledge.
  • This stage typically started between the ages of 8 and 12. During this phase, the student was called a ‘Brahmacharin’ (ब्रह्मचारिन्), denoting a period of celibacy and study.
  • After completing their education, a Brahmacharin could become a ‘Grihasta’ (गृहस्थ), or householder.
  • ‘Brahm Sangh’ (ब्रह्म संघ) was an opportunity for students to acquire higher knowledge. The timing of this ceremony varied among castes.

3. Study in Gurukul (गुरुकुल): The students typically studied in the Gurukul for about 12 years.

• • After this period, they were allowed to return home, and the Guru provided them with final instructions.
  • The completion of this phase was marked by the ‘Samavartan Sanskar’ (समावर्तन संस्कार), a ritual signifying the end of formal education.

4. Fees and Gurudakshina (गुरुदक्षिणा):

• • There was hardly any interference by ruling class in the payment of fees.
  • The concept of ‘dignity of labour’ was encouraged, with students often working hard in various tasks.
  • At the end of their education, students offered ‘gurudakshina’, a token of gratitude or acknowledgment to their teacher.

As per another perspective, the educational process involved three basic stages:

1. Sravana (श्रवण): This refers to acquiring knowledge by listening, especially to the ‘shrutis’.

2. Manana (मनन): The students reflected on and analyzed what they had learned, assimilating the lessons and drawing their own inferences.

3. Nididhyasana (निदिध्यासन): This stage involved comprehending the truth and applying it in real life, a kind of reflective stage.

Subjects in Vedic Education

1. Itihas (इतिहास): History.

2. Anviksiki (अन्विक्षिकी): Science of inquiry/logic, including atma (आत्मा soul) and hetu (हेतु – theory of reasons).

3. Mimamsa (मीमांसा): Interpretation of texts.

4. Shilpashastra (शिल्पशास्त्र): Architecture.

5. Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्र): Polity and governance.

6. Varta (वार्ता): Agriculture, trade, commerce, and animal husbandry.

7. Dhanurvidya (धनुर्विद्या): Archery.

8. Krida (क्रीडा): Physical education, including games and recreational activities.

9. Vyayamaprakara (व्यायामप्रकार): Various exercises.

10. Dhanurvidya (धनुर्विद्या): Archery, specifically for martial skills.

11. Yogasadhana (योगसाधना): Training of the mind and body.

12. Shastrartha (शास्त्रार्थ): Engaging in learned debates.

Vedic education took a comprehensive approach, often requiring long years of study to master a single Veda, and graduates were called ‘Snatka’ (स्रातक). The graduation ceremony was known as ‘Samavartana’ (समावर्तन). This system covered a wide range of subjects, blending practical skills with philosophical and spiritual teachings.

Vedic Education

We are taking a brief picture of oldest vedic texts as a guide of humanity in the following manner.

• Samhitas (संहिता): Mantras and benedictions
• Aranyakas (आरण्यक): Texts on rituals, ceremonies, and symbolic sacrifices
• Brahmanas (ब्राह्मण): Commentaries on rituals and ceremonies
• Upanishads (उपनिषद्): Discussions on meditation, philosophy, and spiritual knowledge
• Language: The Vedas are composed in Vedic Sanskrit

Components of the Vedic System:

Six Vedangas (षड्वेदांग): Auxiliary disciplines of the Vedas. These are important to us:

1. Shiksha (शिक्षा): Phonetics and phonology, focusing on the correct pronunciation of Vedic texts.
2. Kalpa (कल्प): Ritual and ceremonial procedures, detailing how Vedic rituals should be performed.
3. Vyakarana (व्याकरण): Grammar and linguistic analysis, ensuring the precise usage of Sanskrit in Vedic texts.
4. Nirukta (निरुक्त): Etymology and explanation of words, particularly those found in the Vedas.
5. Chandas (छन्द्रस): Meter in Vedic poetry, studying the poetic structure in the Vedas.
6. Jyotisha (ज्योतिष): Astronomy and astrology, used mainly for timing rituals and understanding the calendar.

• Six Darshanas (षड्दर्शन): The six systems of Hindu philosophy. These have been discussed in Unit 6—Samkhya (सांख्य), Yoga (योग), Nyaya (न्याय), Vaisheshika (वैशेषक), Mimamsa (मीमांसा), Vedanta (वेदांत)
• Purana (पुराण): Ancient Indian narratives. There are 18 major Puranas, known as ‘Mahapuranas’ such as Bhagavata Purana, Vishnu Purana, Shiva Purana, and Padma Purana.
• Tarkshastra (तर्कशास्त्र): The science of logic and reasoning.
• Upanishad (उपनिषद्): Spiritual and philosophical discussions. The word ‘Upanishad’ is derived from ‘upa’ (near), ‘ni’ (down), and ‘shad’ (to sit), which translates to ‘sitting down near’, referring to the student sitting near the teacher to learn the secret teachings.
• Acknowledgment of Vedas: Upanishads, Smritis, and Puranas all recognize the supremacy of the Vedas.

Number of Vedas: There are four Vedas.

1. Rigveda (ऋग्वेद): One of the oldest texts, containing hymns and praises to various deities and natural forces. It’s crucial for understanding the religious and cultural practices of ancient India.
2. Yajurveda (यजुर्वेद): This Veda combines prose and poetry, mainly associated with ritual performances, particularly Yagya rituals. It provides instructions for these ceremonies.
3. Samaveda (सामवेद): Known for its emphasis on musical elements, the Samaveda consists of melodies and chants used in religious rituals and is linked to the hymns of the Rigveda.
4. Atharva Veda (अथर्ववेद): Diverse in content, focusing more on everyday life aspects, including medicine, science, and philosophy. It’s known for its collection of spells and incantations.

The Rig Veda, also called as Rig Veda Samhita (ऋग्वेद संहिता), marks the beginning of formal education. This period saw the institutionalization of rituals, leading to two key developments:

1. The emergence of gods with distinct powers.
2. The rise of a specialized priestly class (that might have caused estrangement among common people).

Stages of Vedic Education:

• Early Learning: Initially, education focused on memorizing sacred texts like the Vedas and dharamshastras (धर्मशास्त्र).
• Advanced Learning: Later, the curriculum expanded to include grammar, logic, metaphysics, and other allied subjects, emphasizing critical thinking (चिंतन ‘chintan’) and intellectual development.

Components and Focus of Vedic Education:

1. Encompassed teachings from sutras and Brahmanism.
2. The primary focus was on the mind, with oral teaching and mental exploration being key methods.
3. The Brahman Sangh played a crucial role, providing meritorious students the opportunity to delve deeper into intellectual pursuits.
4. Figures like Lord Buddha employed storytelling to effectively convey complex teachings and principles.

Transition in Ancient Indian Education

• From Rituals to Knowledge: Ancient Indian education evolved from the Brahmanas (कर्मकांड – ritual-focused) to the Upanishads (ज्ञान कांड- knowledge-focused), transitioning from ritual practices to seeking deeper understanding.
• Aranyaka Phase: The Aranyaka (आरण्यक) period was a bridge from the practical Brahmanas to the philosophical Upanishads. It marked a shift from societal roles to contemplative life, often in forests, for the elderly.
• Forest Retirement: Elderly retiring to forests symbolized a journey back to roots and a quest for wisdom, representing a spiritual and philosophical exploration beyond mere physical relocation.

Women Education in Ancient Era

Women in households often learned music, dancing, etc., which were key cultural skills of the time.

1. Upanayana Ceremony (उपनयन संस्कार): This vital Vedic ritual marking the commencement of formal education for women.

2. Types of Educated Women:

• • Sadyodwahas (सद्योद्वाहा): These women pursued studies until marriage, after which their formal education typically concluded.
  • Brahmavadinis (ब्रह्मवादिनी): In contrast to Sadyodwahas, Brahmavadinis chose not to marry, dedicating their lives to ongoing education and scholarly endeavors.

Women studied the Vedas and Vedangas, showing their engagement in religious and philosophical education. They often recited hymns necessary for Yajnas (यज्ञ) and other ritualistic activities (अनुष्ठान). We can take prominent examples of rishikas (ऋषिका) such as Maitreyi (मैत्रेयी) and Gargi (गागर्मी), who were esteemed for their wisdom and scholarly contributions.

Shift from Vedic System towards Buddhism and Jainism: The Vedas somehow indirectly influenced the emergence of Buddhism and Jainism in the following manner:

1. There was a reaction to vedic ritualism.

2. The focus shifted towards ethics and morality, though there were changes in vedic philosophy also. There were social and economic changes.

3. There were philosophical differences, they developed their unique doctrines and practices.

4. Buddhism and Jainism appealed to broader population, there was royal patronage such as by emperors like Ashoka.

5. Buddhism and Jainism tried to connect with people in common languages. Early Buddhist scriptures, known as the ‘Three Baskets’ (Tripitaka त्रिपिटक) or Pali Canon, were written in Pali (पालि). That was the common language in Bihar and UP where Buddhism originated. Similarly, the early Jain scriptures, including the Agamas (आगम), were written in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit (अर्धमागधी प्राकृत). Jainism later used Sanskrit for accessing Indian philosophy.

Jain Education (जैन मत)

There are 24 Tirthankaras (तीर्थकर) in Jainism, the spiritual leaders who attained enlightenment, are highly revered. Rishabhanatha (ऋषभनाथ), the first Tirthankara, and Mahavira (महावीर), the 24th and final Tirthankara, are particularly esteemed.

Jain teachings focus on ethical living (नैतिक जीवन), spiritual growth (आध्यात्मिक विकास), and the welfare of all beings. This philosophy underlines principles like non-violence (अहिंसा), truthfulness (सत्यता), and non-attachment (वैराग्य), guiding followers towards a path of moral and spiritual purity.

Basadis (बसदी) are Jain temples or monasteries where devotees and monks perform worship and rituals. ‘Saptabhangi (सहभंगी/समभुञ्जी)’ or ‘Sapta Puri (सम पुरी)’ are the highly sacred places for Jains such as Ayodhya, Ujjain, Mathura, Dwarka, Kashi, Kanchipuram.

Jainism mentioned the following:

• Dharma (धर्म) is the Jain concept of righteousness and the path to liberation.
• Nirjara (निर्जरा) is the process of purification of the soul.
• Bandha (बंधन) is the attachment of the soul to karma.
• Moksha (मोक्ष) is liberation from the cycle of birth and death.
• Adharma (अधर्म) is the opposite of dharma and leads to bondage.
• Akasha (आकाश) is one of the nine primary substances (tattva तत्व) and is considered to be the fundamental constituent of space.

Texts such as Samavaya Sutra (समवाय सूत्र) and Pragnapara Sutra (प्रज्ञापार सूत्र) mention various scripts, with the former discussing 64 types and the latter about a dozen. Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang (यूएन त्सांग) during King Harshvardhana in 7th century noted that children’s education started with learning alphabets, followed by subjects like grammar, arts and crafts, medicine, logic, and philosophy.

The following concepts are important:

1. Anekantavada (अनेकांतवाद): Termed as ‘non-absolutism’, this principle holds that objects have infinite modes of existence, and only Kevalins (enlightened beings) can fully comprehend all knowledge aspects.

2. Syadavada (स्यादवाद): A theory of conditioned predication, suggesting that our perceptions and judgments are conditional and depend on specific situations.

3. Nayavada (नयवाद): This emphasizes partial viewpoints, describing reality from various perspectives. Sevenfold Predication, known as Saptabhangi (सहभंगी) in Jainism, is a concept associated with Nayavada. It outlines a unique approach to expressing statements, emphasizing their conditional and relative nature. Saptabhangi illustrates that any statement can be seen from seven different perspectives, each reflecting a different aspect of truth.

In Jainism, the approach to learning and imparting knowledge encompasses various methods, each serving a specific purpose in the educational process. Here’s how each term fits into this system:

1. Vachana (वाचना): Reading scriptures or texts is essential in Jain education, focusing on the Agamas and other religious writings.

2. Prachchana (प्रच्छना): This method values asking questions and dialogue, encouraging students to clarify doubts and deepen their understanding.

3. Anupreksa (अनुप्रेक्षा): It involves reflection, with critical thinking and self-reflection being key in Jain philosophy.

4. Amhaya (अम्हया): This systematic approach breaks complex subjects into smaller parts for thorough and in-depth understanding.

5. Dharmapalesa (धर्मपालेशा): It entails spreading religious teachings widely, with Jain monks and scholars preaching principles like non-violence and ethical living.

Main Scripture: ‘Agamas’ (आगम) refers to the sacred texts of Jainism, which contain the teachings and philosophies central to Jainism.

Buddhism (बुद्धमत)

Transmission Modes in Ancient Education

These methods remained integral to the educational processes in ancient education. They reflect a holistic approach which combined rote learning, critical thinking, practical application, and interactive learning.

1. Oral Transmission of Knowledge: This method was crucial due to the limited availability of written texts. In Hinduism, the Vedas and other scriptures were traditionally passed down orally. Jainism also relied heavily on oral transmission of its scriptures and teachings.

2. Memorization: Memorizing texts and teachings was a foundational method, essential for preserving knowledge across generations.

3. Critical Analysis and Introspection: The learners acknowledge the importance of teachings (mantras) in their lives. They try to deeply internalize this knowledge, by applying them in their daily actions and decisions.

4. Storytelling: Lord Buddha used this method specifically to explain His doctrines. That made complex ideas more accessible and relatable. This key method was also used in Hinduism and Jainism for conveying moral and ethical lessons.

5. Question and Answer Method: This interactive approach encouraged students to delve deeper, clarifying doubts and expanding their understanding.

6. Hands-on Method: For practical subjects like medical science, hands-on learning was employed to give students real-world experience and skills.

7. Seminars, Debates, and Discussions: Seminars were used for debates and discussions, promoting critical thinking and the exchange of ideas, facilitating intellectual development and mastery of subjects.

Education and Translation Efforts: A significant project involved translating Buddhist scriptures from Sanskrit into Tibetan, forming the Tibetan Buddhist philosophy (Kangyur and Tengyur). This project included many notable Indian and Tibetan scholars.

Indian Scholars: Padmasambhava (Guru Rinpoche) (पद्मसंभव (गुरु रिनपोछे)) worked hard to translate texts, helping to establish Buddhism in Tibet. Similar efforts were made by Atisha (आतिशा 982-1054 CE) and Shantarakshita (शांतरक्षित).

Tibetan Translators:

• Thonmi Sambhota (थोनमी संभोटा): He is credited with creating the Tibetan script from Indic scripts, enabling the translation of Sanskrit texts into Tibetan.
• Vairotsana (वैरोचन): Made similar efforts by working diligently to translate numerous texts into Tibetan.
• Marpa Lotsawa (मार्पा लोत्सावा) is known as ‘Marpa the Translator’. After studying under Indian masters, he returned to Tibet with many texts.

Buddhist Education in Ancient India

1. Non-Vedic Philosophy Schools: Buddhism, along with Jainism and Charvakas, is part of the Nastika schools (नास्तिक), which reject the authority of the Upanishads.

2. Emphasis on Renunciation: Buddhism focused on subjects that led away from worldly life, prioritizing the renunciatory aspect of education.

3. Jiva (जीव), also known as Jivatman, refers to the living, sentient soul, and Ajiva (अजीव) refers to the non-living aspects of existence.

4. Mass Education by Lord Buddha: Started around 2600 years ago, Buddhist education was inclusive, beyond caste divisions. The Dhamma Vinaya (धम्म विनय) included ethical codes and moral advice. Lord Buddha’s first sermon in Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh is known as Dharma-Chakra-Pravartana (धर्म-चक्र-प्रवर्तन).

5. Middle Path and Individual Responsibility: Buddha advocated the ‘Middle Path’ (मध्यम मार्ग), emphasizing personal happiness and responsibility. Begging by disciples aimed to eliminate ego.

6. Democratic Expansion and Monasteries: Buddhism’s democratic principles led to rapid expansion, with many monasteries evolving into universities. Bhikkhus (भिक्खु) and Bhikkhunis / Upasikas (भिक्खुणी / उपासिका) were the main students.

7. Sangha for Management: Monks were organized into Sanghas (संघ) for better management. The community of monks, nuns, novices, and lay followers is called Sangha.

8. Contribution to Art and Architecture: Notable contributions include stupas (स्तूप) at Sanchi, Bharhut, and Gaya.

9. Life-Long Monastic Commitment: Unlike the Vedic system, Buddhist students often remained monks, severing worldly ties permanently.

10. Oral Tradition and Written Teachings: Buddha’s teachings, originally oral, were written in Pali around 25 BCE.

11. Key Texts: Important texts include Divyavadana (दिव्यावदान), Dipavamsa (दीपवंस), Mahavamsa (महावंस), Milind Panha (मिलिन्द पन्ह), etc.

12. Diverse Subjects in Jatakas: Covered medicine, Vashikaran Kam-Tantra (वशीकरण काम तंत्र), archery, elephant taming, hunting, and pursuit of truth and Nirvana (निर्वाण).

13. Buddhism is meant for Truth, Nirvana, Spiritual Growth and Asceticism: Students often became ascetics, seeking spiritual knowledge. Pabbajja (पब्बज्जा) and Nibbana (निर्वाण) are indeed connected in the broader context of the spiritual journey.

• • Pabbajja (पब्बज्जा) – The Initial Step: This is the act of leaving home to join the monastic community.
  • Nibbana (निर्वाण) – The Ultimate Goal: This represents the end of suffering, the cessation of the cycle of rebirth (samsara), and the achievement of enlightenment. Nibbana is reached through the development of wisdom, ethical conduct, and mental discipline.

Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path:

Core teachings include the Four Noble Truths (अरिय-सच्चानि) and the Eightfold Path (आष्टांगिक मार्ग).

Four Noble Truths in Buddhism:

1. Dukkha (दुखख): Suffering, acknowledging that existence is characterized by discomfort and dissatisfaction.

2. Samudaya (समुदय-दुखसमुदय): The origin of suffering, identifying desire and attachment as the root causes.

3. Nirodha (निरोध-दुखनिरोध): The cessation of suffering, asserting that liberation is possible.

4. Magga (मार्ग-दुखनिरोधगामिनी प्रतिपद्): The path leading to cessation, outlining the Eightfold Path as the means.

Popular Meditation Practices: Vipassana and Samatha

1. Vipassana (विपश्यना): Insight meditation through three elements:

(i) Impermanence (अनिच्चा – Anicca): Everything is transient and constantly changing.

(ii) Suffering (दुखख – Dukkha): Suffering is an inherent part of existence.

(iii) Non-self (अनत्ता – Anatta): Absence of a permanent, unchanging self.

2. Samatha (शमथ): Tranquility (calmness) by focusing on a single object like breath, mantra, or visual.

Eightfold Path:

Right view, Right intention, Right speech, Right action, Right livelihood, Right mindfulness, Right effort, Right concentration.

Five Precepts (पंचशील – Panchsheel):

Lord Buddha suggested abstaining from:

Violence (हिंसा), Stealing (चोरी), Sexual Misconduct (कामुक दुराचार), Lying or Gossip (झूठ या गपशप), Intoxicating Substances (नशीले पदार्थ).

Buddhist Councils (बौद्ध संघ):

In total, four major Buddhist councils were conducted.

1. First Council (पहला धर्मसंघ): Held in 483 BCE in the Sattapani cave at Rajgriha. Teachings were divided into three Pitakas (पिटक):

(a) Vinaya Pitaka (विनय पिटक): Rules of conduct and discipline.

(b) Sutta Pitaka (सुत्त पिटक): Teachings (Dhamma) of Buddha.

(c) Abhidhamma Pitaka (अभिधर्म पिटक): Philosophical analysis and systematization.

2. Second Council (द्वितीय संघ): Conducted in Vaishali.

3. Third Council (तृतीय संघ): Conducted in Pataliputra under Ashoka.

4. Fourth Council (चतुर्थ संघ): Conducted at Kundalvana, Kashmir.

Two Sects of Buddhism

1. Mahayana (महायान Great Vehicle): It believes in the higher order and idol worship of Buddha. It soon spread in northern India and then to China, Korea, Tibet, and Japan. Zen is also a school of Mahayana.

2. Hinayana (हीनयान Lesser Vehicle): Also known as Abandoned Vehicle or Defective Vehicle. It believes in the original teachings of Buddha or doctrine of elders. Theravada is a Hinayana sect.

In fact, Buddhism is a way of ‘soft diplomacy’ that was more liberal than Vedic approach. It promoted the spread of Indian culture to other parts of Asia.

Effective revitalization of the Nalanda University project and encouragement of Buddhist studies in well-established universities will bring the international community to a common platform.